The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community
by Rabbi Sholomo Ben Levy
This essay attempts to bear
witness to true diversity that exists within the Jewish world. Though the
focus is necessarily on those communities that I am most family with, I
attempt to give a broader insight and offer some analysis of the unique
dynamics that are at work. It is also important to remember that not all of
these groups accept the terms used to describe them. Some, in fact, reject the
term "Jew" precisely because it connotes, in the minds of most
people, a white ethnic group. Therefore, the use of this appellation could be
misinterpreted as a desire to be white or a denial of African heritage. In
either case, its application could be regarded as an affront by some. The
groups who feel this way prefer the term Hebrew or Israelite because they
believe it avoids a connection with "whiteness," or conversely,
implies a connection with "blackness." It is with these two caveats
concerning "race" that I use the term Jew as a de-racialized
description of people who are neither Christian nor Muslim but who profess to
worship the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. No offense is intended by my
choice of terms and I hope that none will be taken. I offer a fuller
exploration of the "racial question" in Judaism elsewhere on
this homepage. The information that follows comes from my dissertation
research at Columbia University and from my personal knowledge as a rabbi in
one of the oldest and largest communities of Black Jews in America.
Estimates for the total number of Black Jews in America
range from 40,000, reported by the Encyclopedia of Black America, to
500,000 as stated in a feature story about Black Jews in Ascent magazine.
Unfortunately, none of the sources reveal how they arrived at their figures.
The problem of determining a reliable estimate of the
number of Black Jews in America is made more complicated by the difficulty of
determining who is a "Black Jew." For instance, Arthur Huff Fauset
in his pioneering study, Black Gods of the Metropolis, used a
Philadelphia-based group called the "Church of God" as the basis for
a chapter about "Black Jews." If one simply took an affinity with
the Old Testament and the observance of a few customs as a definition of being
Jewish, as do Fauset and others, then one's figures could be quite high;
though very inaccurate because they would count as Black Jews segments of what
is usually considered the Black Church.
On the other hand, if one used Orthodox Jewish Law, called
"Halackah," as the basis for defining who is a Jew, one would have
to know the religion of the mother of each person; because, by this law, one
cannot decide to be a Jew unless one's mother is a Jew. If the person or group
claimed to have converted to Judaism, then one would have to know if they
underwent certain rituals that involve the taking of special baths, (mikvot)
and in the case of a man, the symbolic pricking of his penis.
Halakhic Law offers a very precise definition of who is a
Jew. However, since fewer than ten percent of the 5.3 million white Jews in
America observe Orthodox Jewish Law, this standard cannot be applied to Black
Jews, nor could I verify baths or pricked penises if I wanted to. In addition,
I am aware of a number of African American individuals and one New Jersey
congregation that have undergone formal conversion only to find that the
"legitimacy" of their conversion was not universally accepted.
Since the particular Halakhic ceremony described above is
not found in the Torah, nor is it referred to in any of the biblical instances
where people joined the Hebrew faith, (Ruth for example), we do not believe
that it has the weight of law. Also, we feel that it denies the concept of
divine intervention and selection referred to in Isaiah 11:11-12 and Jeremiah
3:14. In these passages the Hebrew prophets state that God will be responsible
for the gathering of His people which He shall choose from the "four
corners of the earth" and the from "islands of the sea." This
process is described as a selection of individuals rather than of groups,
"I will take you one from a city, and two from a family, I will bring you
to Zion." The fact that Orthodox rabbis hold that they are the sole
arbiters of deciding who is a Jew negates the existence or exercise of a
divine will that is not channeled through them first. In contrast, the
ceremony we use serves as a public acknowledgment of a spiritual
transformation that has already taken place within the individual.
Beyond this type of problem, however, there are a number of
political reservations that we hold regarding the way that people are
"accepted" into Judaism. The Halakhic procedures require recognition
of and acquiescence to Orthodox authority. Further, the Halakhic standard
conflates membership in a religion (a belief system or way of life accepted on
faith) with acceptance or approval of a particular religious body. An
appropriate analogy, that comes very close to describing our situation, is
that the Pope or Catholic Church can decide who is a Catholic but, he can not
decide who is a Christian. [The fact that some have tried notwithstanding.]
Similarly, various boards or councils may decide who is an "Orthodox
Jew" for instance but, they can not presume to act as God in judging the
content of a person's heart or the sincerity of one's faith.
Judaism, as many of us understand and practice it, is not
a race. If it were, then no one could join it or leave it without being
genetically altered. Judaism is a creed; a living culture with an ancient
history. Those who practice it belong to communities that often have unique
traditions. Though it may not appear as such, most Jews belong to definable
communities which have traditions that come out of their own histories. Sadly,
some of the more influential communities attempt to exercise a hegemony over
the others. Black Jews generally reject the presumptive authority of such
groups--though they accept many of their traditions and interpretations on
other matters. Because of this, Black Jews exist on the margins of Jewish
society though well within the pale of principled disagreement.
Rather than inventing an arbitrary definition or imposing a
contested definition of Judaism onto the Black Jewish community, I have chosen
instead to discuss those groups that describe themselves as either Black Jews,
Hebrews, or Israelites. This approach will allow the reader to understand how
they, the subjects of this study, define Judaism and practice it. In this
regard, I have found that a variety of very interesting, complex, and still
evolving notions of Judaism exist. It is my goal to analyze the major
theological, cultural, and political views that circulate within these
congregations in order to understand how they are informed by issues of race,
religion, and historical circumstances.
Rabbi W.A. Matthew -- The Black Jews
of Harlem
My background and most of my data come from working with
those congregations that derive from the late Chief Rabbi Wentworth Arthur
Matthew (1892-1973). Rabbi Matthew founded the Commandment Keepers
Congregation in Harlem, New York in 1919. He trained and ordained many of the
rabbis who later founded synagogues in various places of the United States and
the Caribbean. Rabbi Matthew, it turns out, was a close associate of Rabbi
Arnold J. Ford who was the musical director of the Universal Negro Improvement
Association (UNIA) which was organized by Marcus Garvey in 1911.
The emergence of Judaism among people of African descent in
the first half of this century was made possible by a combination of the
following factors: (1) A strong religious tradition in the background of the
person who became Jewish that embodied Jewish practices from an early but
unclear source. When interviewed, many of the older members of this community
recall memories of their parents observing certain dietary laws, such as
abstaining from pork or salting their meat. Others recall traditions related
to observing the Sabbath or festivals such as Passover and Sukkot. In most
cases these practices were fragmentary and observed by people who
simultaneously practiced Christianity.
The possible origins of these Hebraic traditions could be
traced to West Africa were a number of tribes have customs so similar to
Judaism that an ancient connection or maybe even descent from one of the
"ten lost tribes" is believed. Other possibilities for these
well-documented practices are through association with Jewish slave owners and
merchants in the Caribbean and North America. In this case, the number of
Jewish slave owners is known to have been small and proselytizing by Jews was
not common. Yet, these Jews can not be excluded as one possible source either
through isolated conversions, intermarriage, or providing an opportunity for
observation.
Many African Americans who practice Judaism today maintain
that they have always had a close affinity with the Hebrews of the Old
Testament. This is true whether or not they recall particular rites that
remind them of the Jewish traditions they now follow. Scholars such as Albert
Raboteau have described in books such as Slave Religion that the
biblical struggles of the Hebrew people--particularly their slavery and exodus
from Egypt--bore a strong similarity to the conditions of African slaves and
was therefore of special importance to them. This close identification with
the biblical Hebrews is clearly seen in the lyrics of gospel songs such as
"Go Down Moses" and remains a favorite theme in the sermons of black
clergy today.
What all this proves is that there was a foundation, be it
psychological , spiritual, or historical, that made some black people
receptive to the direct appeal to Judaism that Rabbi Matthew and others made
to them in this century. If black people were fertile ground for the
harbingers of Judaism, then the philosophy of Marcus Garvey was the seed that
helped to bring it to fruition. Put most simply, Garvey's message was one of
Black Nationalism and Pan Africanism. His goal was to instill pride in a
people who were being humiliated through institutionalized racism and cultural
bigotry. Garvey and Matthew attempted to challenge old stereotypes that either
minimized a black presence in history or the bible, or, that completely
excised black people from these texts. They argued that such distortions and
omissions were harmful to the self-image that many black people had of
themselves. They debunked these myths by extolling the contributions that
black people made to the development of human civilization. To some extent
this meant focusing on the achievements of African societies such as Egypt and
Ethiopia in highly rhetorical and romantic way. It also meant attacking the
false image that all the people in the bible looked like Europeans. They
pointed out that by normative standards the dark hues of the ancient Hebrews
would cause them to be classified as black in today's world. This was a
revelation to thousands of black people who had previously accepted the all
white depictions without question.
Rabbi Ford and Rabbi Matthew took Garvey's philosophy one
step further. They reasoned that if many of the ancient Hebrews were black,
then Judaism was as much a part of their cultural and religious heritage as is
Christianity. In their hearts and minds they were not converting to
Judaism, they were reclaiming part of their legacy. This fit very neatly with
the biblical prophecies that spoke of the Israelites being scattered all over
the world, being carried in slave ships to distant lands, and of being forced
to worship alien Gods. (Deut 28)
Rabbi Matthew found himself in the peculiar position of
having to both justify his small following of black Jews in Harlem, and also
to explain the presence of so many white Jews. His position on this subject
went through various stages. He always maintained that the "original
Jews" were black people-or at least not European; however, he did not
deny the existence or legitimacy of white Jews. In fact, as his services,
synagogues, and attire show, he deferred to orthodox conventions on many
matters. For example, he maintained separate setting for men and women, he
used a standard siddur (prayer book) to conduct his services, worshippers wore
tallitzim and kippot (prayer shawls and yarmulkes), they affixed mezuzot, wore
tefillin, used standard texts in their Hebrew and rabbinic schools and read
from a Sefer Torah.
Rabbi Matthew believed that although the "original
Jews" were black people, white Jews had kept and preserved Judaism over
the centuries. Since we, black Jews, were just "returning" to
Judaism it was necessary for us to look to white Jews on certain
matters--particularly on post-biblical and rabbinic holidays such as Hanukkah
which could not be found in the Torah. However, it is important to note that
Rabbi Matthew felt free to disagree on matters where he had a strong
objection. He also recognized that since many customs, songs, and foods were
of European origin, that he had the right to introduce some African,
Caribbean, and American traditions into his community. Of course, his right to
do this was often challenged, sometimes by Jews who were
"Americanizing" Judaism themselves. Rabbi Matthew was constantly
aware of apparent double standards within Judaism. After decades of trying to
find common ground with white Jews by speaking at white synagogues around the
county and at B'nai Brith lodges internationally, and after repeated attempts
to join the New York Board of Rabbis, Rabbi Matthew concluded that black Jews
would never be fully accepted by white Jews and certainly not if they insisted
on maintaining a black identity and independent congregations. Since his death
in 1973, there has been virtually no dialog between white and black Jews in
America.
Brief Description of Other
Communities
Other Israelite sects that exist within
the United States but are not affiliated with the
community founded by Rabbi Matthew are: The Church
of God, founded by Prophet Cherry in Philadelphia;
the Church of God, founded by Elder William
S. Crowdy in Kansas in 1896; the Nation of Yahweh,
a black nationalist group founded by Yahweh Ben Yahweh in
Florida; the Kingdom of God, founded by Ben
Ammi Carter in Chicago in the 1960s (this group is now in
Israel); Rastafarians, who originated in Jamaica
in 1935 (today this group is most known for creating Reggae
music, but their religious beliefs have caused some to associate
them with Judaism; the Nubian Islamic Hebrews,
formerly located in Brooklyn, New York who have a blend of
Islamic, Judaic, and black nationalist beliefs; and the Israeli
School of Universal Practical Knowledge, also known
as the Twelve Tribes, a paramilitary group
located in Harlem [Ed: The Church 12 Tribes of Israel is
not associated with the ICPUK in any way]. These groups differ
widely on issues of religious practice, cultural dress, and
political views. There is no umbrella organization that unites
them, but most consider themselves to be Black Jews, Hebrews,
or Israelites.
Sources: Reprinted with permission, Black
Jews, Hebrews and Israelites
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY. NO PART OF THIS ESSAY MAY BE USED WITHOUT
PERMISSION. THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED ARE SOLELY THOSE OF ITS AUTHOR.
Rabbi Sholomo Ben Levy
Beth Elohim Hebrew Congregation
189-31 Linden Boulevard
Saint Albans, New York 11412-3344
Email: Rabbi [email protected]
Etz Chaim, BBS (910) 822-9567 Office Phone: (718) 712-4874
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