Synopsis of Subjects
CHAPTER I.
MISHNA I. The first Mishna ordains New Year's Days, viz.: For kings, for the cattle-tithe, for ordinary years, and for the planting of trees. A king who ascends the throne on the 29th of Adar must be considered to have reigned one year as soon as the first of Nissan comes. The Exodus from Egypt is reckoned from Nissan. When Aaron died Sihon was still living. He heard that Aaron was dead and that the clouds of glory had departed. The rule about Nissan only concerned the kings of Israel; but for the kings of other nations, they reckoned from Tishri. Cyrus was a most upright king, and the Hebrews reckoned his years as they did those of the kings of Israel. One is guilty of procrastination. Charity, tithes, the gleanings of the field, that which is forgotten to be gathered in the field, the produce of corners of the field.
One is culpable if he does not give forthwith that which he has vowed for charity. In the case of charity it must be given immediately, for the poor are always to be found. The Feast of Weeks falls on the fifth, sixth, or seventh of Sivan.
How the law against delay affects a woman. In which month is grain
in the early stage of ripening? Only in the month of Nissan. It is also
the New Year for leap-year and forgiving the half-shekels. Congregational
sacrifices brought on the first of Nissan should be purchased with the
shekels raised for the New Year. He who lets a house to another for
a year must count (the year) as twelve months from day to day; but if
the lessee says (I rent this house) "for this year," even if
the transaction takes place on the first of Adar, as soon as the first
of Nissan arrives the year (of rental) has expired. The first of Tishri
is the New Year for divine judgment. At the beginning of tile year it
is determined what shall be at the end of the year. The Supreme Court
in Heaven does not enter into judgment until the Beth Din on earth proclaims
the new moon. Israel enters for judgment first. If a king and a congregation
have a lawsuit, the king enters first. From New Year's Day until the
Day of Atonement, slaves used not to return to their (own) homes; neither
did they serve their masters, but they ate and drank and rejoiced, with
the crown of freedom on their heads. R. Eliezer says, that the world
was created in Tishri. R. Joshua says, that the world was created in
Nissan. Says R. Joshua, God grants the righteous the fulfilment of the
years of their life to the very month and day. Sarah, Rachel, and Hannah
were visited on New Year's Day. Joseph was released from prison on New
Year's Day. On New Year's Day the bondage of our fathers in Egypt ceased.
The Jewish sages fix the time of the flood according to R. Eliezer,
and the solstices according to R. Joshua; but the sages of other nations
fix the time of the flood also as R. Joshua does. Whoso vows to derive
no benefit from his neighbor for a year must reckon (for the year) twelve
months, from day to day; but if he said "for this year," if he made
the vow even on the twenty-ninth of Elul, as soon as the first of Tishri
comes that year is complete. The New Year for giving tithes is for a
tree from the time the fruits form; for grain and olives, when they
are one-third ripe; and for herbs, when they are gathered. R. Aqiba
picked the fruit of a citron-tree on the first of Shebhat and gave two
tithes of them,
MISHNA II. At four periods in each year the world is judged. All are judged
on New Year's Day and the sentence is fixed on the Day of Atonement.
R. Nathan holds man is judged at all times. God said: "Offer before
Me the first sheaf of produce on Passover, so that the standing grain
may be blessed unto you. Recite before Me on New Year's Day the Malkhioth,
that you proclaim Me King; the Zikhronoth, that your remembrance may
come before Me, for good, and how (shall this be done)?" By the sounding
of the cornet. Three circumstances cause a man to remember his sins.
Four things avert the evil decree passed (by God) on man; viz., charity,
prayer, change of name, and improvement, Some add to these four a fifth--change
of location. Three books are opened on New Year's Day: one for the entirely
wicked, one for the wholly good, and one for the average class of people.
The school of Hillel says: The most compassionate inclines (the scale
of justice) to the side of mercy. Who are those who inspire their fellowmen
with dread of them? A leader of a community who causes the people to
fear him over-much, without furthering thereby a high purpose. The legend
how R. Joshua fell sick and R. Papa went to visit him. The Holy One,
blessed be He, wrapped Himself, as does one who recites the prayers
for a congregation, and pointing out to Moses the regular order of prayer,
said to him: "Whenever Israel sins, let him pray to Me after this order,
and I shall pardon him." Prayer is helpful for man before or after the
decree has been pronounced. The legend of a certain family in Jerusalem
whose members died at eighteen years of age. They came and informed
R. Johanan ben Zakkai. The Creator sees all their hearts (at a glance)
and (at once) understands all their works,
MISHNA III. Messengers were sent out in the following six months: in
Nissan, Abb, Elul, Tishri, Kislev, and in Adar. The legend of the king (of Syria who had earlier) issued a decree forbidding the study
of the Torah among the Israelites, or to circumcise their sons, and
compelling them to desecrate their Sabbath. Judah b. Shamua and his
friends cried aloud: "O heavens! Are we not all brethren? Are we not
all the children of one Father?" etc. Samuel said: "I can arrange the
calendar for the whole captivity." Rabha used to fast two days for the
Day of Atonement. Once it happened that he was right,
MISHNAS IV. to VII. For the sake of (the new moon), of the two months Nissan
and Tishri, witnesses may profane the Sabbath. Formerly they profaned
the Sabbath for all (new moons), but since the destruction of the Temple
they instituted that (witnesses) might profane the Sabbath only on account
of Nissan and Tishri. It once happened that more than forty pair (of
witnesses) were on the highway (to Jerusalem) on the Sabbath. Shagbar,
the superintendent of Gader, detained them, and (when) R. Gamaliel (heard
of it, he) sent and dismissed him. It once happened, that Tobias the
physician, his son, and his freed slave saw the new moon in Jerusalem.
The explanation of the passage Exodus xii. 1, by R. Simeon and the rabbis.
Who are incompetent witnesses? Gamblers with dice, etc.,
CHAPTER II.
MISHNAS I. to IV. If the Beth Din did not know (the witness), another was sent
with him to testify in his behalf. It once happened that R. Nehorai
went to Usha on the Sabbath to testify (to the character) of one witness.
The legend how the Boëthusians appointed false witnesses. Formerly
bonfires were lighted (to announce the appearance of the new moon);
but when the Cutheans practised their deceit it was ordained that messengers
should be sent out. There are four kinds of cedars. The whole country
looked like a blazing fire. Each Israelite took a torch in his hand
and ascended to the roof of his house. Great feasts were made for (the
witnesses) in order to induce them to come frequently. How were the
witnesses examined? The sun never faces the concave of the crescent
or the, concave of a rain bow. (If the witnesses say) "We have seen
the reflection (of the moon) in the water, or through a metal mirror,
or in the clouds," "their testimony is not to be accepted." The chief
of the Beth Din says: "It (the new moon) is consecrated," and all the
people repeated after Him: "It is consecrated, it is consecrated." Pelimo
teaches: "When the new moon appeared at its proper time, they used not
to consecrate it,"
MISHNAS V. and VI. R. Gamaliel had on a tablet, and on the wall of
his upper room, illustrations of the various phases of the moon. Is
this permitted? Yea, he had them made to teach by means of them. It
happened once, that two witnesses came and said: "We saw the moon in
the eastern part in the morning and in the western part in the evening."
R. Johanan b. Nuri declared them to be false witnesses. Two other witnesses
came and said: "We saw the moon on its proper day, but could not see
it on the next evening." R. Gamaliel received them; but R. Dosa b. Harkhinas
said: "They are false witnesses." R. Joshua approved his opinion. Upon
this, Gamaliel ordered the former to appear before him on the Day of
Atonement, according to his computation, with his staff and with money.
What R. Joshua did, and what R. Aqiba and R. Dosa b. Harkhinas said
about it. What R. Hiyya said when he saw the old moon yet on the morning
of the twenty-ninth day. Rabbi said to R. Hiyya: "Go to Entob and consecrate
the month, and send back to me as a password, 'David the King of Israel
still lives.'" The consecration of the moon cannot take place at a period
less than twenty-nine and a half days, two-thirds and .0052 (i.e.,
seventy-three Halaqim) of an hour. Even if the commonest of the common
is appointed leader by a community, he must be considered as the noblest
of the nobility. A judge is to be held, "in his days," equal in authority
with the greatest of his antecedents. Gamaliel said to R. Joshua: "Happy
is the generation in which the leaders listen to their followers, and
through this the followers consider it so much the more their duty (to
heed the teachings of the leaders),"
CHAPTER III.
MISHNA I. If the Beth Din and all Israel saw (the moon on the night of the
thirtieth day), but there was no time to proclaim, "It is consecrated,"
before it has become dark, the month is intercalary. When three who
formed a Beth Din saw it, two should stand up as witnesses and substitute
two of their learned friends with the remaining one (to form a Beth
Din). No greater authority than Moses, our master, yet God said to him
that Aaron should act with him. No witness of a crime may act as judge,
but in civil cases he may,
MISHNAS II. to IV. Concerning what kind of cornets may be used on New
Year's and jubilee days. Some words in the Scripture which the rabbis
could not explain, until they heard the people speak among themselves.
The cornet used on the New Year was a straight horn of a wild goat,
the mouthpiece covered with gold. The jubilee and the New Year's Day
were alike in respect to the sounding (of the cornet) and the benedictions,
but R. Jehudah's opinion was different. R. Jehudah holds that on New
Year's Day the more bent in spirit a man is, and on the Day of Atonement
the more upright he is (in his confessions), the better; but R. Levi
holds the contrary. "On the fast days two crooked ram's-horns were used,
their mouthpieces being covered with silver." According to whom do we
nowadays pray: "This day celebrates the beginning of thy work, a memorial
of the first day"? It is unlawful to use a cornet that has been split
and afterwards joined together. If one should happen to pass by a synagogue,
or live close by it and should hear the cornet, he will have complied
with the requirements of the law. If one covered a cornet on the inside
with gold it might not be used. If one heard a part of (the required
number of) the sounds of the cornet in the pit, and the rest at the
pit's mouth, he has done his duty. If one blew the first sound (Teqia),
and prolonged the second (Teqia) as long as two, it is only reckoned
as one. If one who listened (to the sounds of the cornet) paid the proper
attention, but he that blew the
cornet did not, or vice versa, they have not done their duty
until both blower and listener pay proper attention. If special attention
in fulfil ling a commandment or doing a transgression is necessary or
not. As long as Israel looked to Heaven for aid, and directed their
hearts devoutly to their Father in Heaven, they prevailed; but when
they ceased to do so, they failed. All are obliged to hear the sounding
of the cornet, priests, Levites, and Israelites, proselytes, freed slaves,
a monstrosity, a hermaphrodite, and one who is half-slave and half-free.
One may not say the benediction over bread for guests unless he eats
with them, but he may for the members of the family, to initiate them
into their religious duties,
CHAPTER IV.
MISHNAS I. to IV. Regarding if the New Year fall on Sabbath. Where the shofer
(cornet) should be blown after the Temple was destroyed. What was the
difference between Jamnia and Jerusalem? Once it happened that New Year's
Day fell on the Sabbath, and all the cities gathered together. Said
R. Johanan b. Zakkai to the Benai Betherah: "Let us sound (the cornet)!"
"First," said they, "let us discuss!" R. Johanan b. Zakkai ordained
that the palm-branch should everywhere be taken seven days, in commemoration
of the Temple. Since the destruction of the Temple, R. Johanan b. Zakkai
ordained that it should be prohibited (to eat of the new produce) the
whole of the day of waving (the sheaf-offering). Once the witnesses
were delayed in coming, and they disturbed the song of the Levites.
They then ordained that evidence should only be received until (the
time of) the afternoon service. Concerning what songs the Levites had
to sing every day from the Psalms. What did the Levites sing when the
additional sacrifices were being offered on the Sabbath? What did they
sing at the Sabbath afternoon service? According to tradition, a corresponding
number of times was the Sanhedrin exiled. The witnesses need only go
to the meeting place (of the Beth Din). Priests may not ascend the platform
in sandals, to bless the people; and this is one of the nine ordinances
instituted by R. Johanan b. Zakkai,
MISHNA V. Regarding the order of the benedictions on New Year's Day
at the morning prayer, additional prayers, and at what time the cornet
must be blown, etc. What passages from the Scriptures are selected for
additional prayers on New Year's Day. To what do the ten scriptural
passages used for the Malkhioth correspond? How many passages must be
recited from Pentateuch, Prophets, and Hagiographa? We must not mention
the remembrance of the individual (in the Zikhronoth), even if the passage
speaks of pleasant things. What are the passages which must be said
in the benediction of Malkhioth, Zikhronoth, and the Shophroth? R. Elazar
b. R. Jose says: "The Vathiqin used to conclude with a passage from
the Pentateuch." "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is our Lord," may
be used in the Malkhioth. The second of those who act as ministers of
the congregation on the Feast of New Year shall cause another to sound
the cornet on days when the Hallel (Service of Praise, Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.)
is read. We are permitted to occupy ourselves with teaching (children)
until they learn (to sound the cornet), even on the Sabbath. The order,
and how many times it must be blown; also, the different sounds and
the names of them. How all this is deduced from the Bible, and the difference
of opinions between the sages. Generally the soundings of the cornet
do not interfere with each other, nor do the benedictions, but on New
Year's Day and the Day of Atonement they do. R. Papa b. Samuel rose
to recite his prayers. Said he to his attendant, "When I nod to you,
sound (the cornet) for me." Rabha said to him, that this may only be
done in the congregation. A man should always first prepare himself
for prayer, and then pray. R. Jehudah prayed only once in thirty days,
Sources: Biblical
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