Egypt
(2003)
The Constitution provides for freedom of belief and
the practice of religious rites; however, the Government places restrictions
on this right. According to the Constitution, Islam is the official state religion and the primary source of legislation,
and religious practices that conflict with Islamic law (Shari'a) are
prohibited. However, the practice of Christianity or Judaism does not
conflict with Shari'a and, for the most part, members of the non-Muslim
minority worship without harassment and maintain links with coreligionists
in other countries.
There was some improvement in the Government's respect
for religious freedom during the period covered by this report, such
as greater recognition and tolerance of Coptic Christians; however,
the Government continued to fail to bring to justice those responsible
for killing 21 Christians at Al-Kush, and converts from Islam face periodic
detention and discrimination. There were some abuses and restrictions
and the Government continued to prosecute for unorthodox religious beliefs
and practices that "insult heavenly religions."
There continued to be religious discrimination and
sectarian tension in society during the period covered by this report.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues
with the Government in the context of its overall dialogue and policy
of promoting human rights. Senior Administration officials, the U.S.
Ambassador, and members of Congress have continued to raise U.S. concerns
about religious discrimination with President Hosni Mubarak and other
senior government officials.
Section I. Religious Demography
The country has a total area of 370,308 square miles,
and its population is approximately 69.2 million. Most citizens, approximately
90 percent, are Sunni Muslims. There is a small number of Shi'a Muslims
who constitute less than 1 percent of the population. Approximately
8 to 10 percent of the population are Christians, the majority of whom
belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Other Christian communities include
the Armenian Apostolic, Catholic (Armenian, Chaldean, Greek, Melkite,
Roman, and Syrian Catholic), Maronite, and Orthodox (Greek and Syrian)
Churches. An evangelical Protestant church, first established in the
middle of the 19th century, has grown to a community of 17 Protestant
denominations. There also are followers of the Seventh-day Adventist
Church, which was granted legal status in the 1960s. The non-Muslim,
non-Coptic Orthodox communities range in size from several thousand
to hundreds of thousands. The number of Baha'is has been estimated at
between several hundred and a few thousand. The Jewish community numbers
fewer than 200 persons. There are very few declared atheists.
Christians are geographically dispersed throughout
the country, although the percentage of Christians tends to be higher
in upper (southern) Egypt and some sections of Cairo and Alexandria.
There are many foreign missionary groups that work
within the country, especially Roman Catholics and Protestants who have
had a presence in the country for 100 years or more, although their
mission involves education, social, and development work more than proselytizing.
The Government generally tolerates missionary groups if they do not
proselytize actively.
Section II. Status of Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of belief and
the practice of religious rites; however, the Government places restrictions
on this right. According to the Constitution, Islam is the official
state religion and the primary source of legislation, and religious
practices that conflict with Shari'a are prohibited. However, the practice
of Christianity or Judaism does not conflict with Shari'a and, for the
most part, members of the non-Muslim minority worship without harassment
and maintain links with coreligionists in other countries.
For a religious denomination to be officially recognized
by the State, a request must be submitted to the Religious Affairs Department
at the Ministry of Interior, which assesses whether the proposed religion
would pose a threat or upset national unity or social peace. The department
also consults the leading religious figures recognized in the country,
particularly the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Sheik of
Al-Azhar. The registration is then referred to the president, who issues
a decree recognizing the new religion according to Law 15 of 1927. If
a religious group chooses to bypass the official registration process,
participants could be subject to detention and could also face prosecution
under Article 98F of the Penal Code, which forbids the "ridiculing
of a heavenly religion."
The Constitution requires schools to offer religious
instruction. Public and private schools provide religious instruction
according to the faith of the student.
The religious establishment of Al-Azhar and the Ministry
of Awqaf (Islamic Religious Endowments) engage in interfaith discussions
both domestically and abroad. First Lady Suzanne Mubarak has supported
the development of reading and other curricular materials that advocate
tolerance, which are distributed under her patronage by literacy projects
aimed at children and adults, such as a "Reading for All"
festival held annually.
While the Government generally supports dialogue to
promote religious tolerance, instances of intolerance, such as anti-Semitism,
continue to appear in government-supported media. For example, in November
and December 2002, Dream TV aired a historical drama entitled "Horseman
without a Horse." While the Government had only a 10 percent ownership
stake in the station, the Ministries of Information and Culture had
vetted and approved the series. The 41-episode series contained numerous
anti-Semitic depictions of Jewish characters and included some references
to the spurious "Protocols of the Elders of Zion." Following
several interventions by foreign diplomats, state-owned Egypt TV, one
of many stations in the Middle East broadcasting the series, edited
77 minutes from the program and added a disclaimer, which noted that
the historical authenticity of the protocols had never been established
and that the series was the result of the author's imagination. Pro-government
papers subsequently published a denunciation of the protocols by historian
Abdel Wahab al-Messiry. In addition, in late December 2002, Presidential
advisor Ossama El-Baz published a three-part series in the pro-government
newspaper al-Ahram in which he explained the origins of and criticized
the phenomenon of anti-Semitism.
The following religious holidays are designated national
holidays: 'Eid Al-Fitr, 'Eid Al-Adha, the Islamic new year, the birthday
of the prophet Muhammad, and Christmas (January 7 on the Eastern calendar).
Restrictions on Religious Freedom
All mosques must be licensed, and the Government is
engaged in an effort to control them legally in a proclaimed effort
to combat extremists. The Government appoints and pays the salaries
of the imams who lead prayers in mosques and monitors their sermons.
In June 2002, the Minister of Awqaf announced that of the more than
80,000 mosques in the country, the Government controls administratively
60,000 regular mosques and 15,000 mosques located in private buildings.
The Minister said that the Government hoped to control all mosques by
the end of 2003.
An 1856 Ottoman decree still in force requires non-Muslims
to obtain a presidential decree to build a place of worship. In addition
Interior Ministry regulations issued in 1934 specify a set of 10 conditions
that the Government must consider prior to issuance of a presidential
decree permitting construction of a church. These conditions include
the location of the proposed site, the religious composition of the
surrounding community, and the proximity of other churches. The Ottoman
decree also requires the president to approve permits for the repair
of church facilities.
In 1999 in response to strong criticism of the Ottoman
decree, President Mubarak issued a decree making the repair of all places
of worship subject to a 1976 civil construction code. The decree places
churches and mosques on equal footing before the law and facilitates
significantly church repairs. However, local permits are still subject
to approval by security authorities. Christians maintained that, in
some cases, permits can take years to obtain. Security officials also
may deny or delay permits for the supply of water and electricity. The
incidence of blocked or delayed permits varies, often depending on the
nature of the church's relationship with local security officials and
the approach of the governor. During the period covered by this report,
(according to statistics published by the Government of Egypt's Official
Gazette), President Mubarak approved a total of nine permits for church
related construction, including two for the construction of new churches,
two for the demolition and reconstruction of new churches, three for
the construction of church facilities, one for an already-constructed
church, and one for church repairs. In the previous period, the Government
issued 23 permits.
The approval process for church construction continued
to be time-consuming and insufficiently responsive to the wishes of
the Christian community. Although President Mubarak reportedly has approved
all requests for permits presented to him, Christians maintain that
the Interior Ministry delays--in some instances indefinitely--submission
to the president of their requests. They also maintain that security
forces have blocked them from using permits that have been issued, and
that local security officials at times blocked, delayed or denied them
permits for repairs to church buildings and/or the supply of water and
electricity to existing church facilities.
In 2001 President Mubarak ordered the reconstruction
at Government expense of two church buildings in Qalyubia that local
authorities had demolished. However, as of July, local security officials
continued to obstruct the construction of a staircase in one of the
two buildings. Also in Qalyubia, security officials continued to deny
requests for the supply of water and electricity to an 11-story building,
part of which is used as a church. In the Cairo suburb of Ezbet el-Nakhl,
church officials continue to await a presidential decree authorizing
the demolition and reconstruction of a small church 16 years after the
request was first made. In February the media reported that a priest
in Assiyut who had filed a 2002 request to demolish and rebuild a home
for the elderly was summoned by local security authorities and pressed
to sign a statement pledging not to undertake the requested construction.
As a result of these restrictions, some communities
use private buildings and apartments for religious services or build
without permits. In April authorities permitted the re-opening of a
building used as a church in Nag'a al-Qiman, Sohag province, after ordering
its closure in 2002 and briefly detaining some members of the congregation.
Although the church in the building operated without a government permit,
it had been used as a place of worship since 1975.
In February the Government issued a permit for the
construction of a church in the new community of al-'Obour (north of
Cairo). The site had been the source of previous controversy when the
mayor of al-'Obour ordered the demolition of a fence surrounding a plot
of land designated for construction of the new church in December 2001.
The local congregation had erected the fence without a permit and had
begun holding prayer services on the site while they awaited a presidential
decree. In addition the congregation of the Baptist church in Awlad
Ilyas, near Assiyut, has used the churchyard for prayers because local
police have prevented repairs to the structure.
In 1996 human rights activist Mamdouh Naklah filed
suit challenging the constitutionality of a 1934 Minister of Interior
decree, which was based on the 1856 Ottoman decree governing the building
of places of worship for non-Muslims. In November 2002, the State Commissioners'
Body issued a "final" advisory opinion, rejecting the suit
on the grounds that the challenged decree was issued before the Commissioners'
Body was established in 1946. Subsequently, in an April 15 hearing,
a judge ruled that no further consideration of the suit was warranted.
On June 27, the Administrative Court, which is part of the State Council,
rejected the case on the grounds that the decree in question was issued
in 1933, before the establishment of the State Council, which was established
in 1947. The Administrative Court argued that it could not rule on a
law predating its establishment. Nakhla plans to appeal before the Higher
Administrative Court.
On September 28, 2002, Sayyed Tolba was sentenced
to 3 years imprisonment, Gamalat Soliman to 1 year in prison, and 19
others received suspended prison sentences for practicing beliefs deemed
"deviant from Islamic Shari'a." In 2001 the State Emergency
Court convicted 2 men on that charge (sentenced to 5 and 3 years in
prison respectively); in March 2002, the Court convicted 8 persons (sentences
ranged from 3 years in prison to suspended sentences); and in May 2002,
a group of 21 persons were referred to trial in a State Security Emergency
Court on the same charge; the trial was ongoing at the end of the period
covered by this report.
Law 263 for 1960 (decreed by President Gamal Abdel
Nasser) bans Baha'i institutions and community activities. The Government
confiscated all Baha'i community properties, including Baha'i centers,
libraries, and cemeteries, and the ban has not been rescinded.
Political parties based on religion are illegal. Pursuant
to this law, the Muslim Brotherhood is an illegal organization. Muslim
Brothers speak openly and publicly about their views, although they
do not explicitly identify themselves as members of the organization,
and they remain subject to arbitrary treatment and pressure from the
Government. Seventeen independent candidates backed by the Muslim Brotherhood
were elected to the People's Assembly in the 2000 parliamentary elections,
despite government-sponsored efforts to thwart them, which included
mainly limiting access to polling stations but also, in some instances,
violence, detentions and arrests.
There were no new cases of authors facing trial or
charges related to writings or statements considered heretical during
the period covered by this report. In July 2001, the Cairo Personal
Status Court rejected a lawsuit against feminist author Nawal al-Sa'adawi,
in which Islamist attorney Nabih al-Wahsh sought to force the divorce
of al-Sa'adawi from her husband on the grounds of apostasy due to views
she expressed regarding Muslim customs and beliefs.
Various ministries legally are authorized to ban or
confiscate books and other works of art upon obtaining a court order.
The Islamic Research Center at Al-Azhar University has legal authority
to censor, but not to confiscate, all publications dealing with the
Koran and Islamic scriptural texts. In previous years, the Center has
passed judgment on the suitability of nonreligious books and artistic
productions, but there were no new cases during the period covered by
this report.
The local media, including pro-government papers and
state TV, gives prominence to Islamic programming, which sometimes implies
the primacy of Islam among "the heavenly religions." For example,
a program entitled "Essence of Life," which airs twice a week
on state-owned Nile TV, interviews people who have converted to Islam.
The interviewer frequently praises his guests for improving their lives
by having chosen "the right path." Similarly, the religion
page, which appears weekly in the prominent, pro-government daily al-Ahram,
often reports on conversions to Islam and reports factually on how converts
improved their lives and found peace and moral stability, things they
said they lacked in their previous faith.
Since 1995 President Mubarak stated that the Government
would not allow confiscation of books from the market without a court
order, a position supported by the then-Mufti of the Republic, who is
now the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar.
In 1997 human rights activist Mamdouh Naklah filed
suit, seeking removal of the religious affiliation category from government
identification cards. Naklah challenged the constitutionality of a 1994
decree by the Minister of Interior governing the issuance of new identification
cards. A hearing scheduled for February 25 never took place. Upon his
appearance, the court informed Nakhla that the case documents had been
withdrawn and forwarded to the president of the State's Council, a highly
unusual procedure. No new hearing date has been set, and it appears
unlikely that the case will be heard.
The Constitution provides for equal public rights
and duties without discrimination due to religion or creed, and in general,
the Government upholds these constitutional protections; however, government
discrimination against non-Muslims exists. There are no Christians serving
as governors, presidents of public universities, or deans. There are
few Christians in the upper ranks of the security services and armed
forces. Although there has been improvement in a few areas, government
discriminatory practices include: discrimination against Christians
in the public sector; discrimination against Christians in staff appointments
to public universities; payment of Muslim imams through public funds
(Christian clergy are paid by private church funds); and refusal to
admit Christians to Al-Azhar University (which is publicly funded).
In general public university training programs for Arabic-language teachers
refuse to admit non-Muslims because the curriculum involves the study
of the Koran; however, in 2001 the first Christian graduated from an
Arabic-language department at the Suez Canal University.
Anti-Semitic articles and editorials are published
in privately owned papers and to a lesser extent, the pro-Government
press. The Government reportedly has advised journalists and cartoonists
to avoid anti-Semitism. However, government officials insist that manifestations
of anti-Semitism in the media are a reaction to Israeli government actions
against Palestinians and do not reflect historical anti-Semitism.
The Ministry of Culture contested a 2001 Alexandria
court ruling in favor of a suit brought on by a local resident calling
for cancellation of an annual Jewish celebration at the tomb of Rabbi
Abu Hasira in the Delta on the grounds of indecency, as well as suspension
of a Ministry of Culture decree declaring the tomb an antiquity site
protected by the Government. The festival was not held in 2002 and the
case was pending before a higher administrative court at the end of
the period covered by this report.
Although the Coptic Orthodox Church won a lawsuit
to reclaim several plots of land in greater Cairo in 2000, there continued
to be no new returns during the period covered by this report.
According to a 1995 law, the application of family
law, including marriage, divorce, alimony, child custody, and burial,
is based on an individual's religion. In the practice of family law,
the State recognizes only the three "heavenly religions":
Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Muslim families are subject to the
Personal Status Law, which draws on Shari'a (Islamic law). Christian
families are subject to canon law, and Jewish families are subject to
Jewish law. In cases of family law disputes involving a marriage between
a Christian woman and a Muslim man, the courts apply the Personal Status
Law.
Under Shar'ia non-Muslim males must convert to Islam
to marry Muslim women, but non-Muslim women need not convert to marry
Muslim men. Muslim women are prohibited from marrying Christian men.
Inheritance laws for all citizens are based on Shari'a.
Muslim female heirs receive half the amount of a male heir's inheritance,
while Christian widows of Muslims have no inheritance rights. A sole
female heir receives half her parents' estate; the balance goes to designated
male relatives. A sole male heir inherits all his parents' property.
Male Muslim heirs face strong social pressure to provide for all family
members who require assistance; however, this assistance is not always
provided. The 2000 Personal Status Law makes it easier for a Muslim
woman to obtain a divorce without her husband's consent, provided that
she is willing to forego alimony and the return of her dowry.
The Coptic Orthodox Church excommunicates women members
who marry Muslim men, and requires that other Christians convert to
Coptic Orthodoxy in order to marry a member of the Church. The Coptic
Orthodox Church permits divorce only in specific circumstances, such
as adultery or conversion of one spouse to another religion.
Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government at times prosecutes members of religious
groups whose practices deviate from mainstream Islamic beliefs, and
whose activities are believed to jeopardize communal harmony. For example
in 2002 eight persons were convicted of insulting a heavenly religion
and received 3-year prison sentences.
In a February retrial of 50 men first arrested in
Cairo in May 2001 on suspicion of homosexual activity, a criminal court
convicted 21 of "habitual debauchery" and sentenced them to
the maximum 3-year sentence. The verdict was pronounced although judges
had not allowed any substantive discussion of the case during several
hearings. In May 2002, President Mubarak ratified the verdicts against
two men, who had allegedly advocated a belief system that combined Islam
and tolerance for homosexuality and had been subsequently convicted
of violating Article 98(F) and sentenced to 5 and 3 years in November
2001. Although he ratified the verdicts against 2 of the defendants,
the president ordered the retrial of the remaining 50 in a regular criminal
court; the State Security Emergency Court acquitted 29 of the 50; 20
others received 2-year sentences and 1 received a 1-year sentence for
"habitual debauchery."
In May 2002, a State Security Emergency Court in Nasr
City (in greater Cairo) began hearing the case of 21 persons accused
of "insulting religion due to unorthodox Islamic beliefs and practices."
During the trial, 17 of the defendants remained in detention at the
end of the period covered by this report, while 4 were released. The
trial ended on September 28, 2002 with the conviction of Sayyed Tolba,
Gamalat Soliman, and 19 others. Tolba received 3 years in prison, Soliman
1-year in prison, and the rest received 1 year suspended sentences.
In 2001 the Public Prosecutor ordered the release,
pending an appeal, of author Ala'a Hamed, who had been convicted of
insulting Islam in a novel in 1998; his appeal was pending at the end
of the period covered by the report.
Neither the Constitution nor the Civil and Penal Codes
prohibit proselytizing, but those accused of proselytizing have been
harassed by police or arrested on charges of violating Article 98(F)
of the Penal Code, which prohibits citizens from ridiculing or insulting
heavenly religions or inciting sectarian strife.
While there are no legal restrictions on the conversion
of non-Muslims to Islam, there are occasional reports that police harass
Christians who had converted from Islam. The law prescribes steps to
register the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam but does not recognize
the conversion of Muslims to other religions. Converts to Islam are
not permitted to revert to their original religion. The minor children
of converts to Islam, and in some cases adult children, may automatically
become classified as Muslims in the eyes of the state regardless of
the status of the other spouse. This is in accordance with "established"
Islamic Shari'a rule, which dictates "no jurisdiction of a non-Muslim
over a Muslim."
In cases involving conversion from Islam to Christianity,
authorities in the past also have charged several converts with violating
laws prohibiting the falsification of documents. In such instances,
converts, who fear government harassment if they officially register
the change from Islam to Christianity, have altered their identification
cards and other official documents themselves to reflect their new religious
affiliation.
On December 29, 2002, Malak Fahmi, a Christian, and
his wife Sarah, a Christian convert from Islam, were arrested while
attempting to leave the country with their two children. The couple
was charged with falsification of documents. Sarah, who reportedly changed
her name and religious affiliation on her marriage certificate only,
stated that she did so without her husband's assistance. On May 6, a
judge ordered the renewal of their detention for another 45 days.
An estimated several thousand persons are imprisoned
because of alleged support for or membership in Islamist groups seeking
to overthrow the Government. The Government states that these persons
are in detention because of membership in or activities on behalf of
violent extremist groups, without regard to their religious affiliation.
During the period covered by this report, security forces arrested several
hundred persons allegedly associated with the banned Muslim Brotherhood.
Most observers believe that the Government was seeking to undermine
Muslim Brotherhood organization of pro-Palestinian and anti-U.S. and
anti-Israel demonstrations. In 2002 the Government arrested Muslim Brotherhood
supporters following a People's Assembly by-election in Alexandria.
President Mubarak referred three alleged extremist groups to trial before
military tribunals.
Forced Religious Conversion
There were no reports of forced religious conversion
carried out by the Government; however, there were reports of forced
conversions of Coptic girls to Islam by Muslim men. Reports of such
cases are disputed and often include inflammatory allegations and categorical
denials of kidnapping and rape. Observers, including human rights groups,
find it extremely difficult to determine whether compulsion was used,
as most cases involve a Coptic girl who converts to Islam when she marries
a Muslim boy. Reports of such cases almost never appear in the local
media. According to the Government, in such cases the girl must meet
with her family, with her priest, and with the head of her church before
she is allowed to convert. However, there are credible reports of government
harassment of or lack of cooperation with Christian families that attempt
to regain custody of their daughters, and of the failure of the authorities
to uphold the law (which states that a marriage of a girl under the
age of 16 is prohibited, and between the ages of 16 and 21 is illegal,
without the approval and presence of her guardian) in cases of marriage
between an underage Christian girl and a Muslim boy.
Although some Coptic activists maintain that government
officials do not respond effectively to instances of alleged kidnapping,
in April police in Minya intervened in the case of Nivine Malak Kamel,
a 17-year-old Christian girl allegedly kidnapped by Muslim Reda Hussan
Abu Zeid. In May police returned her to her family.
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion
of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from
the United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned
to the United States.
Improvements and Positive Developments in Respect
for Religious Freedom
During the period covered by this report, the Government
took several steps to promote and improve religious freedom and tolerance.
Following the September 11, 2001, attacks in the United States, and
the increase in Israeli-Palestinian violence, government religious institutions
such as Al-Azhar accelerated a schedule of interfaith discussions inside
the country and abroad. The Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, Sheikh Tantawi,
and Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda participated in joint public events,
such as a May meeting hosted by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs
at which the Pope was invited to deliver an address.
In September 2002, the Joint Dialogue Commission of
the Anglican Church and al-Azhar University held its second annual meeting.
Participants agreed that peace was inseparable from justice, stated
that "acceptance of the other" must be promoted, and reaffirmed
their commitment to joint action for peace, justice, and mutual respect.
In October 2002, a prominent Coptic NGO, in cooperation
with the Egyptian Ministry of Awqaf (Islamic Religious Endowments),
held a two-day seminar at which Muslim scholars, evangelical pastors,
and intellectuals from both communities participated.
During the period covered by this report, the Government
continued to take steps to contain incidents of sectarian tension. In
a number of cases reported in the media, Government officials participated
in the consecration ceremonies for new churches. For example, in February,
the Governor of Sohag and other officials, including a representative
of the Ministry of Awqaf along with other Islamic figures, participated
with the Bishop of Tahta, Sohag, in laying the cornerstone for the Mar
Guirguis church in Tahta. In January Pope Shenouda and Minister of Culture
Farouk Hosny consecrated a church in the Red Sea governorate. In December
2002, the Governor of Qena province participated with Orthodox clergy
in a ceremony laying the cornerstone for the Virgin Mary church in Naga'
Hammadi.
In December 2002, President Mubarak announced that
January 7, Christmas on the Eastern calendar, would henceforth be a
national holiday. Pope Shenouda, other Christian leaders, and the Muslim
community warmly welcomed the move as an important symbol of acknowledgment
of the rights and status of Christians in society. Subsequently, Gamal
Mubarak, son of the president and a senior figure in the ruling National
Democratic Party, attended Christmas Eve services, a move interpreted
as a demonstration of interfaith tolerance.
In March 2002, the Government and the American NGO
Athra Kadisha completed the Basatin cemetery bridge. The project, on
which negotiations began in 1989, is a modern highway--part of Cairo's
Ring Road--that traverses a cemetery but respects Jewish religious strictures
against moving or disturbing burial sites.
Government-owned television and radio continued to
provide programming time devoted to Christian issues, including live
broadcast of Christmas and Easter services. Excerpts from Coptic Orthodox
Pope Shenouda's weekly public addresses, documentaries on the country's
monasteries, the travels of the Holy Family and other aspects of Christian
history, and discussions among Muslims and Christians of local and international
topics including discrimination appeared regularly in pro-government
newspapers. Christian clergy spoke on popular television programs such
as "Good Morning Egypt" about current topics and Christian
religious beliefs. A version of Sesame Street especially designed for
the country by the Children's Television Workshop with U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) assistance that began in August 2000,
gained broad viewership among young children and many of their parents.
Among the aims of the program is the promotion of tolerance, and one
of the principal characters is a Christian.
Government and independent newspapers published a
broad spectrum of news and views on religious topics, particularly following
the terrorist attacks against the United States in September 2001. The
government-run printing house Dar al-Ma'arif published for sale a new
edition of the four Christian gospels, resuming a practice that had
stopped decades ago.
The Minister of Education has developed and distributed
curricular materials instructing teachers in government schools to discuss
and promote tolerance in teaching. Government schools began using a
new curriculum on the Coptic and Byzantine periods of Egyptian history,
developed with the advice and support of Christian intellectuals and
the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Section III. Societal Attitudes
Muslims and Christians share a common history and
national identity. They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture,
and language. Christians are geographically dispersed throughout the
country, and Christians and Muslims live as neighbors. However, at times
religious tensions flare up, individual acts of prejudice occur, and
members of both faiths practice discrimination.
In February 2002, Muslim residents attacked and damaged
a church in the village of Bani Walmiss. During the period covered by
this report, the Government funded the repair of the church, and it
officially reopened.
In July 2000, gunmen killed Christian farmer Magdy
Ayyad Mus'ad and wounded five other persons in Giza province, allegedly
because of objections to a church Mus'ad built. Authorities charged
a person with the killing but released the suspect on bail in October
2000; by the end of the period covered by this report, no trial date
had been set.
In December 2000, Father Hezkiyal Ghebriyal, a 75-year-old
Coptic Orthodox priest, was stabbed and seriously wounded in the village
of Bardis, near Sohag. Police arrested the suspected attacker. At the
end of the period covered by this report, the suspect remained in prison
pending an ongoing investigation.
The case of Ahmad and Ibrahim Nasir, who were sentenced
to 7 years in prison for the September 1999 murder of a monk in Assiyut,
remained pending at the end of the period covered by this report. The
Court of Cassation had not yet set a date to hear an appeal by the Public
Prosecutor seeking a heavier sentence.
On June 23, 2002, a State Security Court in Assiyut
began hearing the trial of Mohammed Abdel Azim, accused of participating
in the killing of 13 Christians in the village of Sanbo in March 1992.
Abdel Azim had been sentenced in absentia to 3 years in prison in 1994.
Saudi Arabia extradited him to Egypt in late 2001. The case was transferred
in early 2003 to a regular criminal court and the next hearing is scheduled
for later in the year.
On February 27, the retrial of 96 defendants tried
in connection with the December 1999-January 2000 violence, which left
21 Christians and 1 Muslim dead in the village of Al-Kush, ended with
the acquittal of 93 and the conviction of 3. Of the three convicted,
one Muslim defendant was found guilty of killing the sole Muslim victim
(mistaken for a Christian), and was sentenced to 3 years. A third was
convicted of destruction of property. Charges against a fourth deceased
defendant were dropped. On March 13, the Egyptian Office of the Public
Prosecutor, unsatisfied with the failure to hold any persons responsible
for the deaths of the Christians, appealed the case to the Court of
Cassation. During the period covered by this report, no date had been
set for the Court to hear the case.
While there is no legal requirement for a Christian
girl or woman to convert to Islam in order to marry a Muslim (see Section
II), conversion to Islam is sometimes used to circumvent the legal prohibition
on marriage between the ages of 16 and 21 without the approval and presence
of the girl's guardian. Most Christian families would object to a daughter's
wish to marry a Muslim, and if a Christian woman marries a Muslim man,
the Church excommunicates her. Local authorities sometimes allow custody
of a minor Christian female who converts to Islam to be transferred
to a Muslim custodian, who is likely to grant approval for an underage
marriage. The law is silent on the matter of the acceptable age of conversion.
Ignorance of the law and social pressure, including the centrality of
marriage to a woman's identity, often affect a girl's decision to convert
(see Section II). Family conflict and financial pressure also are cited
as factors.
Official relations between Christian and Muslim religious
figures are amicable, and include reciprocal visits to religious celebrations.
Al-Azhar and the Ministry of Awqaf engage in frequent public and private
interfaith discussions with Christians of various denominations, both
within the country and in other countries. NGOs such as the Coptic Evangelical
Organization for Social Services (CEOSS) are active in organizing formal
and informal interfaith events; CEOSS held such events in September
and October 2002, and in March with the participation of Al-Azhar, the
Ministry of Awqaf, and Christian clerics. In these events, Muslim and
Christian youth met to discuss issues such as citizenship, media affairs,
and societal violence. Private Christian schools admit Muslim students,
and religious charities serve both communities.
Anti-Semitic articles, which can be found in both
the pro-government press and in the press of the opposition parties,
increased late in 2000 and again in 2001 following the outbreak of violence
in Israel and the occupied territories. There have been no violent anti-Semitic
incidents in recent years directed at the tiny Jewish community still
residing in Egypt.
Section IV. U.S. Government Policy
The subject of religious freedom is an important part
of the bilateral dialogue. The subject has been raised at all levels
of government, including by the President, Secretary of State, Assistant
Secretary for Near Eastern Affairs, the U.S. Ambassador, and other embassy
officials. The Embassy maintains formal contacts with the Office of
Human Rights at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In addition the Ambassador
has discussed religious freedom with senior government officials and
religious leaders. The Embassy also discusses religious freedom issues
regularly in contacts with other government officials, including governors
and Members of Parliament. The Ambassador also has made public statements
supporting interfaith understanding and efforts toward harmony and equality
among Egyptians of all faiths. Visiting congressional delegations have
raised religious freedom issues during visits with government officials.
The U.S. Embassy maintains an active dialogue with
the leaders of the Christian and Muslim religious communities, human
rights groups, and other activists. The Embassy investigates every complaint
of religious discrimination brought to its attention. The Embassy also
discusses religious freedom with a range of contacts, including academics,
businessmen, and citizens outside of the capital area. Mission officials
actively challenge anti-Semitic articles in the media through immediate
contacts with editors-in-chief. For example, the Ambassador and various
other Embassy officers met with government officials to express U.S.
dismay at the anti-Semitic themes portrayed in the TV series "Horseman
Without a Horse."
The U.S. Mission, including the Department of State
and USAID, works to expand human rights and to ameliorate the conditions
that contribute to religious strife by promoting economic, social, and
political development. U.S. programs and activities support initiatives
in several areas directly related to religious freedom.
The Mission is working to strengthen civil society,
supporting secular channels and the broadening of a civic culture that
promote religious tolerance. An interagency small-grants program managed
by the U.S. Embassy in Cairo supports projects that promote tolerance
and mutual respect between Muslims and Coptic Christians.
The U.S. Mission also promotes civic education. The
public affairs section of the Embassy supports the development of materials
that encourage tolerance, diversity, and understanding of others, in
both Arabic-language and English-language curriculums. USAID, in collaboration
with the Children's Television Workshop, developed an Egyptian version
of the television program Sesame Street, which is designed to reach
remote households and has as one of its goals the promotion of tolerance,
including among different religions. The program began broadcasting
in August 2000; in 2002 household survey data showed that it was reaching
more than 90 percent of elementary school-aged children (see Section
II). The State Department is currently funding a program for journalists
that promotes balanced, fact-based reporting as a means to mitigate
and reduce social conflict.
USAID also supports private voluntary organizations
that are implementing innovative curriculums in private schools. The
public affairs section of the Embassy is leading an effort to increase
the professionalism of the press, with an emphasis on balanced and responsible
coverage. Finally USAID is working with the Supreme Council of Antiquities
to promote the conservation of cultural antiquities, including Islamic,
Christian, and Jewish historical sites.
Sources: U.S. State Department - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |