Iran
(2001)
The Constitution declares that the "official
religion of Iran is Islam and the doctrine followed is that
of Ja'fari (Twelver) Shi'ism." The Government restricts
freedom of religion.
There was no change in the status of respect
for religious freedom during the period covered by this report.
Members of Iran's religious minorities--including
Baha'is, Jews, Christians, and Sufi Muslims--reported imprisonment,
harassment, and/or intimidation based on their religious
beliefs. At least 10 Baha'is were among those still imprisoned
for reasons related to their faith, while 9 Jews remained
in prison after being convicted for cooperating with a hostile
government, belonging to an illegal organization, and recruiting
members in an illegal organization.
Iranian Society is accustomed to the presence
of Iran's pre-Islamic, non-Muslim communities. However, government
actions create a threatening atmosphere for some religious
minorities, especially Baha'is, Jews, and evangelical Christians.
The Revolutionary Court's conduct of the trial of 13 Jews
contributed to worsening societal attitudes toward the Jewish
community.
The U.S. Government makes clear its objections
to the Government's treatment of religious minorities in
public statements, support for relevant U.N. and nongovernmental
organization (NGO) efforts, and diplomatic contacts with
other countries.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State
designated Iran as a "country of particular concern"
under the International Religious Freedom Act for particularly
severe violations of religious freedom. The Secretary of
State redesignated Iran in October 2000.
Section I. Religious Demography
The country has a total land area of approximately
631,663 square miles and its population is approximately
65,620,000. The population is approximately 99 percent Muslim,
of which 89 percent are Shi'a and 10 percent are Sunni (mostly
Turkomen, Arabs, Baluchs, and Kurds living in the southwest,
southeast, and northwest). Sufi Brotherhoods are popular,
but there are no reliable figures available to determine
their true size.
Baha'is, Christians, Zoroastrians, Mandaeans,
and Jews constitute less than 1 percent of the population.
The largest non-Muslim minority is the Baha'i Faith, which
has an estimated 300,000 to 350,000 adherents throughout
the country. Estimates on the size of the Jewish community
vary from 25,000 to 30,000. These figures represent a substantial
reduction from the estimated 75,000 to 80,000 Jews who resided
in the country prior to the 1979 Revolution. The Christian
community is estimated at approximately 117,000 persons,
according to government figures. Of these the majority consists
of ethnic Armenians and Assyro-Chaldeans. There also are
Protestant denominations, including evangelical churches.
The Mandaean community is estimated at approximately 5,000
to 10,000 persons, who reside primarily in Khuzestan in the
southwest.
The Government figures reported by the
United Nations in 1996 place the size of the Zoroastrian
community at approximately 35,000 adherents. Zoroastrian
groups cite a larger figure of approximately 60,000, according
to the same U.N. report. Zoroastrians are mainly ethnic Persians
concentrated in the cities of Tehran, Kerman, and Yazd. Zoroastrianism
was the official religion of the pre-Islamic Sassanid Empire
and thus has played a central role in the country's history.
Section II. Status of Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
The Government restricts freedom of religion.
The Constitution declares that the "official religion
of Iran is Islam and the doctrine followed is that of Ja'fari
(Twelver) Shi'ism." It also states that "other
Islamic denominations are to be accorded full respect,"
and designates Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians as the
only "recognized religious minorities," which,
"within the limits of the law," are permitted to
perform their religious rites and ceremonies and "to
act according to their own canon in matters of personal affairs
and religious education." Although the Constitution
states that "the investigation of individuals' beliefs
is forbidden" and that "no one may be molested
or taken to task simply for holding a certain belief,"
the adherents of religions not specifically protected under
the Constitution do not enjoy freedom of activity. This situation
most directly affects members of the Baha'i Faith. The Government
regards the Baha'i community, whose faith originally derives
from a strand of Islam, as a misguided or wayward "sect."
The Government fuels anti-Baha'i and anti-Jewish sentiment
in the country for political purposes.
In his 1996 report to the U.N. Commission
on Human Rights, the U.N. Special Rapporteur on the Question
of Religious Intolerance recommended that "the ban on
the Baha'i organization should be lifted to enable it to
organize itself freely through its administrative institutions,
which are vital in the absence of a clergy, so that it can
engage fully in its religious activities." In response
to the Special Rapporteur's concerns with regard to the lack
of official recognition of the Baha'i Faith, government officials
stated that the Baha'is "are not a religious minority,
but a political organization which was associated with the
Shah's regime, is against the Iranian Revolution and engages
in espionage activities." According to the Special Rapporteur,
government officials stated nonetheless that, as individuals,
all Baha'is were entitled to their beliefs and were protected
under other articles of the Constitution as citizens.
The central feature of the country's Islamic
republican system is rule by a "religious jurisconsult."
Its senior leadership, including the Supreme Leader of the
Revolution, the President, the head of the judiciary, and
the Speaker of the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Parliament),
is composed principally of Shi'a clergymen.
Religious activity is monitored closely
by the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance and by the
Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS). Adherents of
recognized religious minorities are not required to register
individually with the Government; however, their community,
religious, and cultural events and organizations, including
schools, are monitored closely. Baha'is are not recognized
by the Government as a legitimate religious group but are
considered an outlawed political organization. Evangelical
Christian groups have been pressured by government authorities
to compile and submit membership lists for their congregations,
but evangelicals have resisted this demand.
Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Religious minorities, by law and practice,
are barred from being elected to a representative body (except
to the seats in the Majles reserved for minorities, as provided
for in the Constitution) and from holding senior government
or military positions. Members of religious minorities are
allowed to vote, but they may not run for President. All
religious minorities suffer varying degrees of officially
sanctioned discrimination, particularly in the areas of employment,
education, and housing.
Members of religious minorities generally
are barred from becoming school principals. Applicants for
public sector employment are screened for their adherence
to Islam. The law stipulates penalties for government workers
who do not observe "Islam's principles and rules."
Religious minorities may not serve in the judiciary or the
security services. The Constitution states that "the
Army of the Islamic Republic of Iran must be an Islamic army,
i.e., committed to an Islamic ideology and the people, and
must recruit into its service individuals who have faith
in the objectives of the Islamic Revolution and are devoted
to the cause of achieving its goals." Baha'is are prohibited
from government employment.
University applicants are required to pass
an examination in Islamic theology, which limits the access
of most religious minorities to higher education (despite
the fact that public school students receive instruction
in Islam).
The Government allows recognized religious
minorities to conduct the religious education of their adherents.
This includes separate and privately funded Zoroastrian,
Jewish, and Christian schools but not Baha'i schools. The
Ministry of Education, which imposes certain curriculum requirements,
supervises these schools. With few exceptions, the directors
of these private schools must be Muslim. Attendance at these
schools is not mandatory for recognized religious minorities.
All textbooks used in course work, including religious texts,
must be approved for use by the Ministry of Education. Religious
texts in non-Persian languages require approval by the authorities
for use. This requirement imposes sometimes significant translation
expenses on minority communities.
Recognized religious minorities may provide
religious instruction in non-Persian languages but often
come under pressure from the authorities when conducting
such instruction in Persian. In particular evangelical Christian
and Jewish communities suffer harassment and arrest by authorities
for the printing of materials or delivery of sermons in Persian.
Recognized religious minorities are allowed
by the Government to establish community centers and certain
cultural, social, sports, or charitable associations that
they finance themselves. This does not apply to the Baha'i
community, which since 1983 has been denied the right to
assemble officially or to maintain administrative institutions.
Because the Baha'i Faith has no clergy, the denial of the
right to form such institutions and elect officers has threatened
its existence.
Religious minorities suffer discrimination
in the legal system, receiving lower awards than Muslims
in injury and death lawsuits, and incurring heavier punishments.
Muslim men are free to marry non-Muslim women but marriages
between Muslim women and non-Muslim men are not recognized.
The Government is highly suspicious of
any proselytizing of Muslims by non-Muslims and can be harsh
in its response, in particular against Baha'is and evangelical
Christians.
The Government does not ensure the right
of citizens to change or renounce their religious faith.
Apostasy, specifically conversion from Islam, can be punishable
by death.
The Baha'i Faith originated in Iran during
the 1840's as a reformist movement within Shi'a Islam. Initially
it attracted a wide following among Shi'a clergy. The political
and religious authorities of that time joined to suppress
the movement, and since then the hostility of the Shi'a clergy
to the Baha'i Faith has remained intense. Baha'is are considered
apostates because of their claim to a valid religious revelation
subsequent to that of Mohammed. The Baha'i Faith is defined
by the Government as a political "sect," historically
linked to the Pahlavi regime and, hence, counterrevolutionary
and characterized by its espionage activities for the benefit
of foreign entities, particularly Israel. Historically at
risk in the country, Baha'is often have suffered increased
levels of harassment and abuse during times of political
unrest.
Baha'is may not teach or practice their
faith or maintain links with coreligionists abroad. The fact
that the Baha'i world headquarters (established by the founder
of the Baha'i Faith in the 19th century in what was then
Ottoman-controlled Palestine) is situated in what is now
the state of Israel, exposes Baha'is to government charges
of "espionage on behalf of Zionism," in particular
when caught communicating with or sending monetary contributions
to the Baha'i Faith headquarters.
Broad restrictions on Baha'is appear to
be aimed at destroying them as a community. Baha'is repeatedly
have been offered relief from mistreatment if they were prepared
to recant their faith.
Baha'i cemeteries, holy places, historical
sites, administrative centers, and other assets were seized
shortly after the 1979 revolution. None of the properties
have been returned, and many have been destroyed. Baha'is
are not allowed to bury and honor their dead in keeping with
their religious tradition. They are permitted access only
to areas of wasteland that the Government designates for
their use, and are not allowed to mark the graves. Many historic
Baha'i gravesites have been desecrated or destroyed. In October
1998, three Baha'is were arrested in Damavand, a city north
of Tehran, on the grounds that they had buried their dead
without government authorization.
Baha'i group meetings and religious education,
which often take place in private homes and offices, are
curtailed severely. Public and private universities continue
to deny admittance to Baha'i students, a particularly demoralizing
blow to a community that traditionally has placed a high
value on education. Denial of access to higher education
appears aimed at the eventual impoverishment of the Baha'i
community.
Baha'is regularly are denied compensation
for injury or criminal victimization. Government authorities
claim that only Muslim plaintiffs are eligible for compensation
in these circumstances.
A 1993 law prohibits government workers
from membership in groups that deny the "divine religions,"
terminology that the Government uses to label members of
the Baha'i Faith. The law also stipulates penalties for government
workers who do not observe "Islamic principles and rules."
In 1993 the U.N. Special Representative
reported the existence of a government policy directive on
the Baha'is. According to the directive, the Supreme Revolutionary
Council instructed government agencies to block the progress
and development of the Baha'i community, expel Baha'i students
from universities, cut the Baha'is' links with groups outside
the country, restrict the employment of Baha'is, and deny
Baha'is "positions of influence," including those
in education. The Government claims that the directive is
a forgery. However, it appears to be an accurate reflection
of current government practice.
While in recent years the Government has
eased some restrictions, thereby enabling Baha'is to obtain
food-ration booklets and send their children to public schools,
the prohibition against the admission of Baha'is to universities
remains. Thousands of Baha'is dismissed from government jobs
in the early 1980's receive no unemployment benefits and
have been required to repay the Government for salaries or
pensions received from the first day of employment. Those
unable to do so face prison sentences.
Over the past 2 years, the Government took
some positive steps in recognizing the rights of Baha'is,
as well as other religious minorities. In November 1999,
President Khatami publicly stated that no one in Iran should
be persecuted because of his or her religious beliefs. He
added that he would defend the civil rights of all citizens,
regardless of their beliefs or religion. Subsequently the
Expediency Council approved the "Right of Citizenship"
bill, affirming the social and political rights of all citizens
and their equality before the law. In February 2000, following
approval of the bill, the head of the judiciary issued a
circular letter to all registry offices throughout the country,
which permits any couple to be registered as husband and
wife without being required to state their religious affiliation.
This measure effectively permits the registration of Baha'i
marriages in the country. Previously Baha'i marriages were
not recognized by the Government, leaving Baha'i women open
to charges of prostitution. Consequently children of Baha'i
marriages were not recognized as legitimate and, therefore,
were denied inheritance rights.
While Jews are a recognized religious minority,
allegations of official discrimination are frequent. The
Government's anti-Israel policies, along with a perception
among radical Muslim elements that Jewish citizens support
Zionism and the State of Israel, create a threatening atmosphere
for the small Jewish community. Jewish leaders reportedly
are reluctant to draw attention to official mistreatment
of their community due to fear of government reprisal.
There appears to be little restriction
or interference with the religious practice or education
of Jews. Jews are permitted to obtain passports and to travel
outside the country; however, with the exception of certain
business travelers, are required by the authorities to obtain
clearance (and pay additional fees) before each trip abroad.
The Government appears concerned about the emigration of
Jews and permission generally is not granted for all members
of a Jewish family to travel outside the country at the same
time. Jews were eased out of government positions after 1979.
According to the U.N. High Commissioner
of Refugees Background Paper on Iran, the Mandaeans are included
among the country's recognized religious minorities. The
small community faces discrimination similar to the country's
other pre-Islamic religious minorities.
Although Sunni Muslims are accorded full
respect under the terms of the Constitution, some groups
claim discrimination on the part of the Government. In particular
Sunnis cite the lack of a Sunni mosque in Tehran and claim
that authorities refuse to authorize construction of a Sunni
place of worship in the capital.
Shortly after the 1979 revolution, the
Government repealed the Family Protection Law, a hallmark
bill that was adopted in 1967, which gave women increased
rights in the home and workplace, and replaced it with a
legal system based largely on Shari'a practices. The State
enforces gender segregation in most public spaces, and prohibits
women from interacting openly with unmarried men or men not
related to them. Women must ride in a reserved section on
public buses and enter public buildings, universities, and
airports through separate entrances. Women are prohibited
from attending male sporting events, although this restriction
does not appear to be enforced universally. While the enforcement
of a conservative Islamic dress codes has varied with the
political climate since the death of Ayatollah Khomeini in
1989, what women wear in public is not entirely a matter
of personal choice. Women are subject to harassment by the
authorities if their dress or behavior is considered inappropriate
and may be sentenced to flogging or imprisonment for such
violations. The law prohibits the publication of pictures
of uncovered women in the print media, including pictures
of foreign women. There are penalties for failure to observe
Islamic dress codes at work.
In 1998 the Majles passed legislation that
mandated segregation of the sexes in the provision of medical
care. The bill provided for women to be treated only by female
physicians and men by male physicians, which raised questions
about the quality of care that women could receive under
such a regime, considering the current imbalance between
the number of trained and licensed male and female physicians
and specialists.
Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men.
The testimony of a woman is worth only half that of a man
in court. A married woman must obtain the written consent
of her husband before traveling outside the country.
In October 2000, the Parliament passed
a bill to raise the legal age of marriage for women from
9 to 15. However, in November 2000, the Council of Guardians
rejected the bill as contrary to Islamic law, although even
under the current law marriage at the minimum age is rare.
All women, no matter the age, must have the permission of
their father or a living male relative in order to marry.
The law allows for the practice of Siqeh, or temporary marriage,
a Shi'a custom in which a woman or a girl may become the
wife of a married or single Muslim male after a simple and
brief religious ceremony. The Siqeh marriage may last for
a night or as little as 30 minutes. The bond is not recorded
on identification documents, and, according to Islamic law,
men may have as many Siqeh wives as they wish. Such wives
are not granted rights associated with traditional marriage.
Under legislation passed in 1983, women
have the right to divorce, and regulations promulgated in
1984 substantially broadened the grounds on which a woman
may seek a divorce. However, a husband is not required to
cite a reason for divorcing his wife. In 1986 the Government
issued a 12-point "contract" to serve as a model
for marriage and divorce, which limits the privileges accorded
to men by custom and traditional interpretations of Islamic
law. The model contract also recognized a divorced woman's
right to a share in the property that couples acquire during
their marriage and to increased alimony rights. Women who
remarry are forced to give up custody of children from earlier
marriages to the child's father. In 1998 the Majles passed
a law that granted custody of minor children to the mother
in certain divorce cases in which the father is proven unfit
to care for the child (the measure was enacted because of
the complaints of mothers who had lost custody of their children
to former husbands with drug addictions and criminal records).
Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government appears to adhere to a practice
of keeping a small number of Baha'is in arbitrary detention,
some at risk of execution, at any given time. There were
10 Baha'is reported to be under arrest for the practice of
their faith at the end of the period covered by this report,
2 of them under sentences of death.
Ruhollah Rowhani, a Baha'i, was executed
in July 1998 after having served 9 months in solitary confinement
on a charge of apostasy stemming from allegedly having converted
a Muslim woman to the Baha'i Faith. The woman claimed that
her mother was a Baha'i and that she herself had been raised
a Baha'i. Rowhani was not accorded a public trial or sentencing
for his alleged crime, and no sentence was announced prior
to his execution.
Two Baha'is, Sirus Zabihi-Moghaddam and
Hadayat Kashefi-Najafabadi, were tried alongside Rowhani
in 1998 and later sentenced to death by a revolutionary court
in Mashad for practicing their faith. In 2000 the sentences
were reduced to 7 and 5 years respectively.
The Government continued to imprison and
detain Baha'is based on their religious beliefs. Manuchehr
Khulusi was arrested in June 1999 while visiting fellow Baha'is
in the town of Birjand, and was imprisoned until his release
in May 2000. During his imprisonment, Khulusi was interrogated,
beaten, held in solitary confinement, and denied access to
his lawyer. The charges brought against him are still unknown,
but they were believed to be related to his faith. The Islamic
Revolutionary Court in Mashhad held a 2-day trial in September
1999 and sentenced Khulusi to death in February 2000. Despite
Khulusi's release, it is unclear if the conviction and death
sentence against him still stand.
The property rights of Baha'is generally
are disregarded. Since 1979 large numbers of private and
business properties belonging to Baha'is have been confiscated.
In 2000 eight buildings belonging to Baha'is were confiscated
in Tehran, Shiraz, and Isfahan. In 1999 three Baha'i homes
in Yazd and one in Arbakan were confiscated because their
owners were members of the Baha'i community. In September
and October 1998, government officers plundered more than
500 Baha'i homes throughout the country and seized personal
household effects, such as furniture and appliances. The
Government's seizure of Baha'i personal property, as well
as its denial of Baha'i access to education and employment,
is eroding the economic base of the Baha'i community.
In 1999 authorities in Khurasan intensified
their efforts to intimidate and undermine Baha'i education.
Two teachers in Mashhad were arrested and sentenced to 3
years' imprisonment. Their students were given suspended
sentences, to be carried out if the young persons again participated
in religious education classes. Three more Baha'is were arrested
in Bujnurd in northern Khurasan for participating in religious
education gatherings. After 6 days in prison, they were released
with suspended sentences of 5 years. The use of suspended
sentences appears to be a new tactic by the Government to
discourage Baha'is from taking part in monthly religious
gatherings.
In September 1998, authorities began a
nationwide operation to disrupt the activities of the Baha'i
Institute of Higher Learning. Also known as the "Open
University," the Institute was established by the Baha'i
community shortly after the revolution to offer higher educational
opportunities to Baha'i students who had been denied access
to the country's high schools and universities. The Institute
employed Baha'i faculty and professors, many of whom had
been dismissed from teaching positions by the Government
as a result of their faith, and conducted classes in homes
or offices owned or rented by Baha'is. During the operation,
which took place in at least 14 different cities, 36 faculty
members were arrested and a variety of personal property,
including books, papers, and furniture, either were destroyed
or confiscated. Government interrogators sought to force
the detained faculty members to sign statements acknowledging
that the Open University was now defunct and pledging not
to associate with it in the future. Baha'is outside the country
report that none of the 36 detainees would sign the document.
All but 4 of the 36 persons detained during the September
1998 raid on the Baha'i Institute had been released by November
1998.
In March 1999, Dr. Sina Hakiman, Farzad
Khajeh Sharifabadi, Habibullah Ferdosian Najafabadi, and
Ziaullah Mirzapanah, the four remaining detainees from the
September 1998 raid, were convicted under Article 498 of
the Penal Code and sentenced to prison terms ranging from
3 to 10 years. In the court verdict, the four were accused
of having established a "secret organization" engaged
in "attracting youth, teaching against Islam, and teaching
against the regime of the Islamic Republic." According
to Baha'i groups outside the country, the four taught general
science and Persian literature courses. In July 1999, Mirzapanah,
who had been sentenced to 3 years in prison, became ill and
was hospitalized. Prison authorities allowed him to return
home upon his recovery on the understanding that they could
find him whenever necessary. The other three were released
in December 1999.
The authorities have become particularly
vigilant in recent years in curbing what is perceived as
increasing proselytizing activities by evangelical Christians
whose services are conducted in Persian. Government officials
have reacted to such activity by closing evangelical churches
and arresting converts. Members of evangelical congregations
have been required to carry membership cards, photocopies
of which must be provided to the authorities. Worshipers
are subject to identity checks by authorities posted outside
congregation centers. Meetings for evangelical services have
been restricted by the authorities to Sundays, and church
officials have been ordered to inform the Ministry of Information
and Islamic Guidance before admitting new members to their
congregations.
Because conversion of a Muslim to a non-Muslim
religion may be considered apostasy under traditional Shari'a
practices enforced in the country, non-Muslims may not proselytize
Muslims without putting their own lives at risk. Evangelical
church leaders are subject to pressure from authorities to
sign pledges that they would not evangelize Muslims or allow
Muslims to attend church services.
One U.S.-based organization reported in
1997 8 deaths of evangelical Christians at the hands of authorities
in the previous 11 years, and between 15 and 23 disappearances
in the year between November 1997 and November 1998.
Mistreatment of evangelical Christians
continued during the period covered by this report. Christian
groups have reported instances of government harassment of
churchgoers in Tehran, in particular against worshipers at
the Assembly of God congregation in the capital. Instances
of harassment cited included conspicuous monitoring outside
Christian premises by Revolutionary Guards to discourage
Muslims or converts from entering church premises and demands
for presentation of identity papers of worshipers inside.
Iranian Christians International (ICI) detailed the cases
of Alireza and Mahboobeh Mahmoudian, converts to Christianity
and lay leaders of the Saint Simon the Zealot Osgofi Church
in Shiraz, who were forced to leave the country permanently
in June 1998 after continued harassment by authorities. ICI
reported that Alireza Mahmoudian had lost his job because
of his conversion and had been beaten repeatedly by Basijis
(paramilitary forces) and Ansar-e Hizbollah (gangs of thugs
often aligned with specific members of the leadership) on
orders of government officials from the Ministry of Islamic
Guidance. His wife, Mahboobeh, also had been the subject
of intimidation, principally through frequent and aggressive
interrogation by government officials.
Some Jewish groups outside the country
cite an increase in anti-Semitic propaganda in the official
and semiofficial media as adding to the pressure felt by
the Jewish community. One example cited is the periodic publication
of the anti-Semitic and fictitious "Protocols of the
Elders of Zion," both by the Government and by periodicals
associated with hard-line elements of the regime. In 1986
the Iranian Embassy in London was reported to have published
and distributed the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion"
in English. The Protocols also were published in serial form
in the country in 1994 and again in January 1999. On the
latter occasion they were published in Sobh, a conservative
monthly publication reportedly aligned with the security
services.
In February and March 1999, 13 Jews were
arrested in the cities of Shiraz and Isfahan. Among the group
were several prominent rabbis, teachers of Hebrew, and their
students. The charges centered on alleged acts of espionage
on behalf of Israel, an offense punishable by death. The
13 were detained for over 1 year before trial, largely in
solitary confinement, without official charges or access
to lawyers. In April 2000, the defendants were appointed
lawyers, and a closed trial commenced in a revolutionary
court in Shiraz. Human rights groups and governments around
the world criticized the lack of due process in the proceedings.
The Special Representative on Iran characterized them as
"in no way fair." On July 1, 2000, 10 of the 13,
along with 2 Muslim defendants, were convicted on charges
of illegal contact with Israel, conspiracy to form an illegal
organization, and recruiting agents. They received prison
sentences ranging from 4 to 13 years. Three were acquitted.
The lawyers of those convicted filed an appeal and on September
21, 2000, an appeals court overturned the convictions for
forming an illegal organization and recruiting agents, but
upheld the convictions for illegal contacts with Israel.
Their sentences were reduced to between 2 and 9 years' imprisonment.
One of the 10 convicted was released in February 2001 upon
completion of his prison term.
Jewish groups outside the country noted
that the March 1999 arrest of the 13 Jewish individuals coincided
with an increase in anti-Semitic propaganda in newspapers
and journals associated with hardline elements of the Government.
Since the beginning of the trial, Jewish businesses in Tehran
and Shiraz have been targets of vandalism and boycotts, and
Jews reportedly suffered personal harassment and intimidation.
Human Rights Watch reported the death in
May 1998 of Jewish businessman Ruhollah Kakhodah-Zadeh, who
was hanged in prison without a public charge or legal proceeding.
Reports indicate that Kakhodah-Zadeh may have been killed
for assisting Jews to emigrate. As an accountant, Kakhoda-Zadeh
provided power-of-attorney services for Jews departing the
country.
Human Rights Watch reported in 1998 the
killing of Sunni prayer leader Molavi Imam Bakhsh Narouie
in the province of Sistan va-Baluchistan in the southeast.
This led to protests from the local community, which believed
that government authorities were involved in the murder.
There were no reports of government harassment
of the Zoroastrian community during the period covered by
this report.
The Government restricts the movement of
several senior religious leaders, some of whom have been
under house arrest for years, and often charges members of
religious minorities with crimes such as drug offenses, "confronting
the regime," and apostasy.
The Special Clerical Court (SCC) system,
which was established in 1987 to investigate offenses and
crimes committed by clerics, and which is overseen directly
by the Supreme Leader, is not provided for in the Constitution,
and operates outside the domain of the judiciary. In particular
critics alleged that the clerical courts were used to prosecute
certain clerics for expressing controversial ideas and for
participating in activities outside the area of religion,
including journalism.
During the latter part of 2000, a Special
Clerical Court began the trial of Hojatoleslam Hassan Yousefi
Eshkevari, a cleric who participated in the Berlin conference,
on charges of apostasy, "corruption on earth,"
"declaring war on God," and "denial of basic
religious principles," which potentially carry the death
penalty. Eshkevari has called for more liberal interpretations
of Islamic law in certain areas. In November 1999, former
Interior Minister and Vice President Abdollah Nouri was sentenced
by a branch of the SCC to a 5-year prison term for allegedly
publishing "anti-Islamic" articles, insulting government
officials, promoting friendly relations with the United States,
and providing illegal publicity to dissident cleric Ayatollah
Hossein Ali Montazeri in the pages of Khordad, a newspaper
that was established by Nouri in late 1998 and closed at
the time of his arrest. Nouri used the public trial to attack
the legitimacy of the SCC.
In April 1999, a branch of the SCC convicted
Hojatoleslam Mohsen Kadivar, a Shi'a cleric and popular seminary
lecturer, to 18 months in prison for "dissemination
of lies and confusing public opinion" in a series of
broadcast interviews and newspaper articles. Kadivar advocated
political reform and greater intellectual freedom and criticized
the misuse of religion to maintain power. In an interview
published in a newspaper, Kadivar criticized certain government
officials for turning criticism against them into alleged
crimes against the State. He also observed that such leaders
"mistake themselves with Islam, with national interests,
or with the interests of the system, and in this way believe
that they should be immune from criticism." He also
allegedly criticized former Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini
and demonstrated support for dissident cleric Ayatollah Montazeri.
Kadivar's trial was not open to the public.
In July 1999, the SCC banned the daily
newspaper Salaam and indicted its publisher, Mohammad Mousavi
Khoeniha, on charges of "violating Islamic principles,"
"endangering national security," and "disturbing
public opinion." Khoeniha, a cleric, later was sentenced
to a 5-year jail term. The charges involved the publication
by Salaam of documents related to the unsolved murders of
dissident intellectuals in late 1998, which indicated a possible
connection to senior officials in the plotting of the murders.
In January 2001, judicial authorities closed
Kiyan, a 10-year-old independent journal specializing in
religious and philosophical issues. The Tehran General Court
ordered the closure. The Judge stated that Kiyan had "published
lies, disturbed public opinion and insulted sacred religion."
Forced Religious Conversions
There were no reports of forced religious
conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been
abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or
of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States. However, a child born to a
Muslim father automatically is considered a Muslim.
Section III. Societal Attitudes
The continuous activity of Iran's pre-Islamic,
non-Muslim communities, such as Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians,
has accustomed the population to the presence of non-Muslims
in society. However, government actions create a threatening
atmosphere for some religious minorities.
The Jewish community has been reduced to
less than one-half of its prerevolutionary size. Some of
this emigration is connected with the larger, general waves
of departures following the establishment of the Islamic
Republic, but some also stems from continued perceived anti-Semitism
on the part of the Government and within society.
The Government's anti-Israel policies and
the trial of the 13 Jews in 2000, along with the perception
among some of the country's radicalized elements that Iranian
Jews support Zionism and the State of Israel, create a threatening
atmosphere for the Jewish community (see Section II). Many
Jews have sought to limit their contact with or support for
the State of Israel out of fear of reprisal.
Sunni Muslims encounter religious discrimination
at the local level, and there were reports of discrimination
against practitioners of the Sufi tradition during the period
covered by this report.
Section IV. U.S. Government Policy
The United States has no diplomatic relations
with Iran and thus cannot raise directly with the Government
the restrictions the Government places on religious freedom
and other abuses that it commits against adherents of minority
religions. The U.S. Government makes its position clear in
public statements, support for relevant United Nations and
NGO efforts, and diplomatic contacts with other countries.
President Clinton made a number of statements
regarding the treatment of religious minorities in Iran,
including a June 1998 statement criticizing the execution
of Ruhollah Rowhani, a member of the Baha'i Faith, and statements
in June 1999 and July 2000 calling on the Government to exonerate
the imprisoned members of Iran's Jewish community. Secretary
of State Albright also called on Iran to release and drop
charges against the 13 Jews, 10 of whom were convicted and
remained in prison at the end of the period covered by this
report.
Since 1982 the U.S. Government has cosponsored
a resolution each year regarding the human rights situation
in Iran offered by the European Union at the annual meeting
of the U.N. Commission on Human Rights. The United States
has supported a similar resolution offered each year during
the U.N. General Assembly. The U.S. Government has supported
strongly the work of the U.N. Special Representative on Human
Rights for Iran and called on the Iranian Government to grant
him admission and allow him to conduct his research (he has
been denied entry visas since 1996).
The U.S. State Department spokesman on
numerous occasions has addressed the situation of the Baha'i
and Jewish communities, notably following Secretary Albright's
March 17, 2000 speech on Iran, the execution of Ruhollah
Rowhani in June 1998, the Government's actions against the
Baha'i Institute of Higher Education in September 1998, and
repeatedly after the arrest of 13 members of the Iranian
Jewish community in March 1999. The U.S. Government has encouraged
other governments to make similar statements and has pressed
those governments to raise the issue of religious freedom
in discussions with the Iranian Government.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State
designated Iran as a "country of particular concern"
under the International Religious Freedom Act for particularly
severe violations of religious freedom. The Secretary of
State redesignated Iran in October 2000.
*The United States does not have an embassy
in Iran. This report draws heavily on non-U.S. Government
sources.
Sources: U.S. State Department - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |