Jordan
(2001)
The Constitution provides for freedom of
religion, provided that religious practices are consistent
with "public order and morality;" however, the
Government imposed some restrictions on freedom of religion.
According to the Constitution, Islam is the state religion.
There was no change in the status of respect
for religious freedom during the period covered by this report.
Members of unrecognized religious groups and religious converts
from Islam face legal discrimination and bureaucratic difficulties
in personal status cases. The Government prohibits non-Muslims
from proselytizing Muslims.
Relations between Muslims and Christians
in the country generally are amicable. Adherents of unrecognized
religions face some societal discrimination.
The U.S. Government discusses religious
freedom issues with the Government in the context of its
overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Religious Demography
The country has a total area of 55,436
square miles and its population is approximately 5 million
persons. Over 95 percent of the population are Sunni Muslim.
Official government figures estimate that Christians make
up 4 percent of the population; however, government and Christian
officials privately estimate the true figure to be closer
to 2 percent. There also are at least 20,000 Druze, a small
number of Shi'a Muslims, and less than 800 adherents of the
Baha'i faith. There are no statistics available regarding
the number of atheists or persons who are not adherents of
any particular religious faith.
Officially recognized Christian denominations
include the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic
(Melkite), Armenian Orthodox, Maronite Catholic, Assyrian,
Anglican, Lutheran, Seventh-Day Adventist, United Pentecostal,
and Presbyterian Churches. Other churches, including the
Baptist Church, the Free Evangelical Church, the Church of
the Nazarene, the Assembly of God, and the Christian Missionary
Alliance, are registered with the Ministry of Justice as
"societies," but not as churches. Some Egyptian
immigrants are adherents of Coptic Christianity and there
are a number of both Chaldean and Syriac Christians and Muslim
Shi'as represented in the immigrant Iraqi population.
Among the foreign missionaries operating
in the country are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints (Mormons); Jehovah's Witnesses; Campus Crusaders for
Christ; Life Agape; Intervarsity; Navigators; Christar; Arab
World Ministries; Operation Mobilization; Southern Baptist
International Mission Board; the Conservative Baptist; Frontiers;
Brother Andrew; Jesuits; Christian Brothers; Rosary Sisters;
Benedictines; Anglican Church Mission Society; the Society
of Friends (Quakers); Comboni Sisters; Little Sisters of
Jesus; the Religious of Nazareth; Sisters of St. Dorothy;
the Daughters of Mary the Helper (Salesian Sisters); the
Little Sisters of Nazareth; the Little Family of the Annunciation;
Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition; Basiliennes Chouerites;
Focolare Sisters; Franciscans (OFM); Sons of Divine Providence
(Don Orione Fathers); Association Fraternal International
(AFI); Institute of the Incarnate Word; Franciscans of the
Cross; Dominican Sisters of St. Catherine; Franciscan Missionaries
of Mary (FMM); Franciscan Missionaries of the Immaculate
Heart of Mary; Daughters of Mary of the Enclosed Garden;
Theresian Institute; and the Missionaries of Charity.
With few exceptions, there are no major
geographic concentrations of particular religious groups.
The cities of Husn, in the north, and Fuheis, near Amman,
are predominantly Christian. Madaba and Karak, both south
of Amman, have significant Christian populations. The northern
part of the city of Azraq is predominantly Druze, as is Umm
Al-Jabal in the city of Mafraq. There also are significant
populations of Druze in Amman and Zarka, and a smaller number
of Druze in Irbid and Aqaba. There are a number of nonindigenous
Shi'a living in the Jordan Valley and the south of the country.
Section II. Status of Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for the safeguarding
of "all forms of worship and religious rites in accordance
with the customs observed in the Kingdom, unless such is
inconsistent with public order or morality;" however,
the Government imposes some restrictions on freedom of religion.
The Constitution also states that "there shall be no
legal discrimination with regard to Jordanians' rights and
duties based on race, language, or religion." However,
some members of unrecognized religious groups and religious
converts from Islam face legal discrimination and bureaucratic
difficulties in personal status cases.
According to the Constitution, Islam is
the state religion. Neither Islam nor the Government recognizes
religious faiths other than the three main monotheistic religions:
Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. In addition, not all Christian
denominations have been accorded legal recognition as religions.
Since 1998 the Prime Minister has unofficially conferred
with an interfaith council of bishops representing local
churches on all matters relating to the Christian community,
including the registration of new churches in the country.
The Government uses the following criteria when considering
recognition of Christian churches as separate official religions:
The faith does not contradict the nature of the Constitution,
public ethics, customs, or traditions; the faith is recognized
by the Middle East Council of Churches; the faith does not
oppose the national religion; and the group includes some
citizen followers.
According to the Government, the role of
the State in religious affairs is limited to supervision.
Groups that have practices that violate the law and the nature
of Jordanian society--such as Satan worship--are prohibited.
Religious institutions, such as churches
that wish to receive official government recognition, must
apply to the Prime Ministry for registration. Recognized
non-Muslim religious institutions do not receive subsidies;
they are financially and administratively independent from
the Government and are tax-exempt.
The Muslim feasts of Eid al-Adha, Eid al-Fitr,
the Prophet Mohammed's Birthday, the Prophet's Ascension,
and the Islamic New Year are celebrated as national holidays.
Christmas and the Gregorian Calendar New Year also are national
holidays. Easter is a government holiday for Christians,
and Christians may request leave for other Christian feasts
prescribed by the local Council of Bishops.
Religious instruction is mandatory for
all Muslim students in public schools. Christian and Baha'i
students are not required to attend courses in Islam. In
1996 the late King Hussein and the Ministry of Education
approved religious instruction for Christian students in
public schools. In 1998 the Government established an experimental
program in four districts to incorporate Christian education
in the public school curriculum. In 1999 the local Council
of Bishops approved the use of the Syrian model of catechism
in these test districts; however, the program has not progressed
due to a lack of follow-up by both the Ministry of Education
and the local Christian hierarchy.
The Constitution provides that congregations
have the right to establish schools for the education of
their own members "provided that they comply with the
general provision of the law and are subject to the control
of government in matters relating to their curricula and
orientation."
There are two major government-sponsored
institutions that promote interfaith understanding: The Royal
Institute for Interfaith Studies and the Royal Academy for
Islamic Civilization Research (al-Bayt Foundation). Both
institutions sponsor research, international conferences,
and discussions on a wide range of religious, social, and
historical questions from the perspective of both Muslims
and Christians. The Government facilitated the holding of
two international Christian conferences in government facilities
in September 2000 and May 2001.
Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government does not recognize the Druze
or Baha'i faiths as religions but does not prohibit the practice
of the faiths. Druze face official discrimination but do
not complain of social discrimination. Baha'is face both
official and social discrimination. The Government does not
record the bearer's religion on national identity cards issued
to Druze or Baha'is. The small Druze and Baha'i communities
do not have their own courts to adjudicate personal status
and family matters; such matters are heard in Shari'a courts.
The Government does not officially recognize the Druze temple
in Azraq, and four social halls belonging to the Druze are
registered as "societies." The Government does
not permit Baha'is to register schools or places of worship.
The Government does not recognize Jehovah's
Witnesses, the Church of Christ, or the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints, but each denomination is allowed to
conduct religious services and activities without interference.
The Government does not interfere with
public worship by the country's Christian minority. Although
the majority of Christians are allowed to practice freely,
some activities, such as encouraging Muslims to convert to
the Christian faith--considered legally incompatible with
Islam--are prohibited.
Shari'a law prohibits non-Muslims from
proselytizing Muslims. Conversion to the Muslim faith by
Christians is allowed; however, a Muslim may not convert
to another religion. Muslims who convert to other faiths
complain of social and government discrimination. The Government
does not fully recognize the legality of such conversions.
Under Shari'a converts are regarded as apostates and legally
may be denied their property and other rights. However, in
practice this principle is not applied. According to the
Government, it neither encourages nor prohibits apostasy.
Converts from Islam do not fall under the jurisdiction of
their new religion's laws in matters of personal status and
still are considered Muslims under Shari'a. Conversely, converts
to Islam fall under the jurisdiction of the Shari'a courts.
Shari'a law prescribes the death penalty for Muslims who
convert to another religion; however, there is no corresponding
statute under national law, and such punishment has never
been applied.
According to one Christian cleric, the
Government does not generally prohibit citizens from proselytizing
if it is within the limits of the law and based on "the
principle of maintaining personal security and safety and
provided that it does not contradict the customs and traditions
of society." Government policy requires that foreign
missionary groups (which the Government believes are not
familiar with the customs and traditions of Jordanian society)
refrain from public proselytizing "for the sake of their
own personal safety from fundamentalist members of society
that oppose such practices." The Government has taken
action against some Christian proselytizers in response to
the complaints of recognized Christian groups who charge
that the activities of these missionaries "disrupt the
cohesiveness and peace between religious groups in the society."
There were some reports of local government
officials encouraging Christian females involved in relationships
with Muslim males to convert to Islam to diffuse family or
tribal disputes caused by the relationship (see Section III).
However, there were no known cases in which local officials
harassed or coerced individuals to convert during the period
covered by this report.
The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Trusts
manages Islamic institutions and the construction of mosques.
It also appoints imams, provides mosque staff salaries, manages
Islamic clergy training centers, and subsidizes certain activities
sponsored by mosques. The Government loosely monitors sermons
at mosques and requires that speakers refrain from criticizing
the Royal Family or instigating social or political unrest.
According to the Constitution, religious
community trusts ("Awqaf") and matters of personal
status such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance
fall within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Shari'a courts
for Muslims, and separate non-Muslim tribunals for each religious
community recognized by the Government. There is no civil
marriage. The head of the department that manages Shari'a
court affairs (a cabinet-level position) appoints Shari'a
judges, while each recognized non-Muslim religious community
selects the structure and members of its own tribunal. All
judicial nominations are approved by the Prime Minister and
commissioned officially by royal decree. The Protestant denominations
registered as "societies" come under the jurisdiction
of one of the recognized Protestant church tribunals. There
are no tribunals assigned for atheists or adherents of unrecognized
religions. These individuals must request one of the recognized
courts to hear their personal status cases.
Shari'a is applied in all matters relating
to family law involving Muslims or the children of a Muslim
father, and all citizens, including non-Muslims, are subject
to Islamic legal provisions regarding inheritance.
All minor children of a male citizen who
converts to Islam are automatically considered to be Muslim.
Adult children of a male Christian who has converted to Islam
become ineligible to inherit from their father if they do
not themselves convert to Islam. In cases in which a Muslim
converts to Christianity, the act is not legally recognized
by the authorities, and the subject continues to be treated
as a Muslim in matters of family and property law, and the
minor children of a male Muslim who converts to Christianity
continue to be treated as Muslims under the law.
Some Christians are unable to divorce under
the legal system because they are subject to their faith's
religious court system, which does not allow divorce. Many
of these individuals convert to another Christian denomination
or the Muslim faith in order to divorce legally.
The Government notes individuals' religions
(except for Druze, Baha'is, and other unrecognized religions)
on the national identity card and "family book"
(a national registration record that is issued to the head
of every family and that serves as proof of citizenship)
of all citizens. Atheists must associate themselves with
a recognized religion for official identification purposes.
The Government traditionally reserves some
positions in the upper levels of the military for Christians;
however, all senior command positions have been traditionally
reserved for Muslims. Division-level commanders and above
are required to lead Islamic prayer for certain occasions.
There are no Christian clergy in the military.
In early 2000, radical Islamists criticized
a poem published by Muslim poet Musa Hawamdeh. In March 2000,
the Government banned the book in which the poem was published.
In June 2000, Hawamdeh was summoned to a Shari'a court to
face allegations of apostasy. The complainant requested that
Hawamdeh publicly retract the controversial statements in
his poem and requested that the Shari'a judge order that
he divorce his wife and lose his rights to inherit property
or manage his own wealth. The Shari'a court referred the
case to a civil court. In July 2000, Hawamdeh, without retracting
any portion of his poem, was acquitted on all charges in
both the Shari'a and civil courts. However, according to
June 2001 press reports, the Shari'a appeals court ordered
Hawamdeh retried on the apostasy charge. According to some
reports, the retrial is based on a procedural error; however,
some observers believe that the procedural error is being
used as a pretext to continue harassing the poet. At the
end of the period covered by this report, most observers
believed that the Shari'a court would find Hawamdeh innocent
of apostasy.
In June 2000, due to a dispute stemming
from an intrachurch rivalry between the Jerusalem Patriarchate
and the Antioch Orthodox Patriarchate, the Government closed
an Arab Orthodox church in Amman that was aligned with the
Antioch Patriarch in Damascus, Syria. The Government closed
the church following a request from the local Orthodox hierarchy
to enforce a 1958 law that grants the Jerusalem Patriarchate
authority over all Orthodox churches in the country. The
church reopened in December 2000 with permission from the
Government, but was closed again a week later based largely
on pressure from the Orthodox hierarchy. The Government stated
that the church was free to open under a different name that
would not imply affiliation with the Orthodox Church. The
church remained closed at the end of the period covered by
this report (see Section III).
Non-Jordanian Christian missionaries operate
in the country but are subject to restrictions. Christian
missionaries may not proselytize Muslims. During the period
covered by this report, U.S.-affiliated Christian mission
groups in the country continued to complain of bureaucratic
difficulties, including refusal by the Government to renew
residence permits.
In February 2000, the governor of the Amman
municipality closed the office of Life Agape--an organization
associated with the Baptist Church--after the director refused
to sign a letter stating that he would not "deal with
Muslims." The office remained closed at the end of the
period covered by this report.
In April and September 1999, a foreign
employee of a small language school in Amman applied for
a residence permit from the Ministry of Interior. His application
was denied, reportedly because government officials believed
that he had been trying to convert Muslims to Christianity.
He reapplied in April 2000 and was still awaiting a response
from the Government at the end of the period covered by this
report.
In December 1999, the municipality of Amman
closed the Roy and Dora Whitman Academy-a small, nonprofit
school founded by U.S.-affiliated missionaries in Amman --
because it was not registered with the Ministry of Education.
The board of the academy had initiated the process of registering
the school in 1997. After being contacted by embassies representing
a number of countries, the Ministry of Education assisted
the school in properly fulfilling registration requirements.
In April 2000, the school received registration and once
again began teaching students. In July 2000, the Ministry
of Labor issued work permits to two faculty members at the
school.
The Jordan Evangelical Theological Seminary
(JETS), a Christian training school for pastors and missionaries,
applied in August 1998 for a permit to purchase land on which
to construct a seminary and campus. In May 1999, permission
was granted to purchase the land on the condition that JETS
receive accreditation from the Ministry of Education. In
May 1999, JETS submitted its first application for registration
to the Council of Higher Education (CHE). However, pending
such registration authorities suspended renewal of the residence
permits of all of the seminary's 36 foreign students and
2 members of the faculty. In 1998 and early 1999, some noncitizen
Arab Muslim students were deported or asked to leave the
country as a result of their association with JETS. In mid-1999,
the Ministry of Interior issued visas and residence permits
to some students and staff of JETS. However, in September
1999, JETS received a letter from the CHE stating that it
had postponed reviewing the application until "a complete
strategy for higher education was in place." In December
1999, the Ministry again began refusing to issue or to renew
visas or resident permits for students and staff of the school
until it received accreditation from the Ministry of Education.
JETS reapplied for registration in January 2000. In May 2000,
the Secretary General of the CHE told JETS that the CHE may
not register colleges that have religion as the only discipline
of study. In February 2001, JETS submitted a third application
to the Ministry of Education with an expanded curriculum.
At the request of the CHE, the application also contained
a new name without the word "evangelical" -- Jordan
Minara University. At the end of the period covered by this
report, the school's application still was pending, and the
Ministry's failure to issue visas has affected 24 of 140
students (and their families), as well as 4 staff members
at the school.
During the Muslim holy month of Ramadan,
all citizens, including non-Muslims, are discouraged from
eating, drinking, or smoking in public or in vehicles and
are discouraged strongly from dressing in a manner that is
considered inconsistent with Islamic standards. Restaurants
are closed during daylight hours unless specifically exempted
by the Government and alcohol is only served in those facilities
catering specifically to tourists.
Of the 80 seats in the Lower House of Parliament,
9 are reserved for Christians. No seats are reserved for
Druze or adherents of other religious faiths. The country's
parliamentary election law historically has limited the number
of Islamists elected to Parliament. The major Islamic political
party boycotted the 1997 elections, stating that the election
law must be amended before it will participate in future
elections. On June 16, 2001, the King dissolved Parliament
and charged the Government with drafting a new election law.
In March 2000, Jordan University amended the student council
election law, granting the university president the authority
to appoint half of the university's 80-member student council,
including the chair. This decision reportedly was made to
curb the influence of Islamists on campus. In April 2000,
many students--Islamists and non-Islamists--protested this
decision. Islamist groups also called for a boycott of the
elections on April 25, 2000 and some persons associated with
these groups physically attempted to prevent students from
voting.
The Political Parties Law prohibits houses
of worship from being used for political party activity.
The law was designed primarily to prevent Islamist politicians
from preaching in mosques.
Under Shari'a as applied in the country,
female heirs receive half the amount of a male heir's inheritance,
and the non-Muslim widow of Muslim spouses has no inheritance
rights. A sole female heir receives half her parents' estate;
the balance goes to designated male relatives. A sole male
heir inherits both of his parents' property. Male Muslim
heirs have the duty to provide for all family members who
need assistance. Men are able to divorce their spouses more
easily than women.
Shari'a as applied in the country regards
the testimony of a woman to be equal to half that of a man.
This provision technically applies only in religious courts;
however, in the past it has been imposed in civil courts
as well, regardless of religion.
Abuses of Religious Freedom
There were no reports of religious detainees
or prisoners who remained in custody at the end of the period
covered by this report. However, the security services detained
approximately 50 persons, described in the press as "Islamists"
during the period covered by this report. These detentions
were related to allegations of involvement in terrorist or
strictly political activities rather than religious affiliation
or belief.
In October 2000 and May 2001, security forces briefly detained
and released several Muslim religious leaders for inciting
public unrest following the outbreak of Israeli-Palestinian
violence in the West Bank and Gaza.
Forced Religious Conversion
There were no reports of forced religious
conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been
abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or
of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States. However, according to Jordanian
law the father of the child may restrict the child's travel.
There reportedly are at least 35 cases of U.S. citizen children
residing in Jordan against the will of their U.S. citizen
mothers. Under the law, these children are considered Muslim
if their fathers are Muslim.
Improvements and Positive Developments
in Respect for Religious Freedom
In July 2000, the Ministry of Labor issued
work permits to two faculty members at the Roy and Dora Whitman
Academy, a small, nonprofit school founded by U.S.-affiliated
missionaries in Amman.
Section III. Societal Attitudes
Relations between Muslims and Christians
in the country generally are amicable. Relations within the
Christian community sometimes are difficult, especially among
the evangelical Christian community. In June 2000, due to
a dispute stemming from an intrachurch rivalry between the
Jerusalem Patriarchate and the Antioch Orthodox Patriarchate,
the Government closed an Arab Orthodox church in Amman, which
was aligned with the Antioch Patriarch in Damascus, Syria
(also see Section II).
In general Christians do not suffer discrimination. Christians
hold high-level government and private sector positions and
are represented in the media and academia approximately in
proportion to their presence in the general population. Senior
command positions in the military traditionally have been
reserved for Muslims (see Section II). Baha'is face some
societal and official discrimination.
The majority of the indigenous population
views religion as central to personal identity and religious
conversions are not widely tolerated. Muslims who convert
to other religions often face social ostracism, threats,
and abuse from their families and Muslim religious leaders.
Romantic relationships between members of different religions,
which may lead to conversion--either to the Muslim or Christian
faiths--usually are strongly discouraged by the families.
Interfaith relationships may lead to ostracism and, in some
cases, violence against the couple or feuds between members
of the couple's families. When such situations arise, families
may approach local government officials for resolution. There
were reports that in some cases, local government officials
encouraged Christian women involved in relationships with
Muslim men to convert to Islam in order to defuse potential
family or tribal problems. However, there were no known cases
in which local officials harassed or coerced persons to convert.
In previous years, when the Government intervened, it sometimes
placed the women concerned into "protective custody"
to prevent retribution by one of the families.
Employment applications occasionally contain
questions about an applicant's religion.
During the period covered by this report,
local newspapers occasionally published articles critical
of evangelical organizations.
Section IV. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy officials raised religious
freedom and other human rights issues with government authorities
on a number of occasions. Embassy officers met frequently
with members of the various religious and missionary communities
in the country, as well as with private religious organizations.
Embassy officers assisted private religious groups to obtain
official registration during the period covered by this report.
The Embassy's American Citizens' Services officer is in regular
contact with members of the American missionary community
in the country, many of whom serve as emergency wardens.
In January 2001, the Embassy sponsored
a successful program on interreligious dialog and tolerance
by Dr. Mahmoud Ayoub, a professor of religion at a university
in the United States.
Sources: U.S. State Department - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |