Environmental Protection
Israel, with a population over 7.8 million today, is the
world's only developed country whose population is growing against a backdrop of population density. Without wise planning, the Israel of tomorrow may well resemble a never-ending field of asphalt and concrete, its air
polluted, its groundwater contaminated, its serenity disturbed by
traffic noise and pollution.
But a different vision is also possible.
- Introduction
- Historical Overview
- Nature Conservation
- Water Quality
- Air Quality
- Solid Waste
- Hazardous Substances
- Conclusion
Introduction
Rapid population growth and steady expansion of agriculture and industy have contributed to environmental deterioration, especially in the coastal area where more than half of
Israel's population and most of its industry are concentrated. To combat
pollution of the Mediterranean and Red Sea coastlines, Israel has adopted
a multifaceted program of inspection, legislation, enforcement, shore
clean-ups and international cooperation, primarily within the framework
of the Mediterranean Action Plan.
Under conditions of water scarcity and intensive development, the degradation of water quality
is a critical problem. The main causes of groundwater pollution are
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, seawater intrusion and domestic and
industrial wastewater. High priority has been given to wastewater treatment
to safeguard its effects on the environment and public health and to
develop an additional water source for agricultural irrigation. A recently
approved plan for water management stipulates seawater and brackish
water desalination, improved wastewater treatment for reuse purposes,
efficient water production and water conservation. A rehabilitation
program for polluted streams has been initiated with the aim of transforming
them into freshwater resources with ecological and recreational value.
The quality of drinking water is strictly supervised.
Factors affecting air quality include energy
production, transportation and industry -
and all three have increased dramatically
in recent years. The use of low sulfur fuel
for energy production has helped reduce concentrations
of sulfur dioxide considerably, but pollutant
emissions linked to increased vehicular traffic
have risen significantly. Lead-free gasoline,
catalytic converters and lower sulfur content
in diesel fuel have been introduced to mitigate
the problem. A nationwide monitoring system
is providing updated information on air quality
throughout the country. Israel also complies
with international resolutions on ozone depletion
and climate change.
Rapid growth in population, standard of living
and consumption have led to significant increases
in solid waste in the order of 4%-5% annually.
Most of the country's illegal garbage dumps
have been shut down in recent years and replaced
with environmentally-safe landfills. Efforts
are being made towards integrated solid waste
management which will include reduction, recycling,
recovery and incineration. Recent recycling
regulations should facilitate the shift to
low- and non-waste technology.
"Cradle to grave" management of
hazardous substances is based on licensing,
regulation and supervision over all aspects
of their production, use, disposal and treatment.
Enforcement of legislation, implementation
of a national contingency plan for integrated
emergency response to accidents, and remediation
and upgrading of the national site for hazardous
waste should minimize potential dangers to
health and the environment.
Enforcement of environmental legislation
is a top priority alongside environmental
education, from kindergarten to university.
The public takes part in environmental law
enforcement as anti-litter trustees and animal
welfare trustees empowered to report on violations
of the respective laws. Economic tools are
increasingly used to promote environmental
improvement, both in the form of financial
grants to industries which invest in pollution
prevention and in the form of taxes and levies
on polluters. In line with the principles
of sustainable development, efforts are directed
at resource conservation and prevention of
pollution in all economic sectors.
Historical Overview
In the 25year period following its independence
in 1948, Israel accorded high priority to intensive development
programs: new towns were built, modern agricultural programs were
introduced, water sources were tapped and roads and airports were
constructed. The rapid growth rate of population, industry and
agriculture led to environmental degradation, which was further
aggravated by the concentration of most industrial and urban
activities along the narrow coastal strip, where meteorological
conditions are unfavorable to pollution dispersal and where Israel's
major aquifer is located.
After the establishment of Israel's first
environmental government body in 1973, an environment management
program based on cooperation and integration between environmental
protection and economic development was formulated. Given the rapid
rate of development, the focus of environmental policy has always
been on preventive measures. Over the years, efforts have been
concentrated on incorporating environmental considerations into the
decision-making processes of all economic sectors. This trend is
being reinforced in the wake of the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (Earth Summit). Today, Israel is taking
its first steps toward the preparation of a national strategy on
sustainable development development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
Nature Conservation
In juxtaposition to its small land area, Israel is
characterized by a wide range of physical conditions and a rich
variety of flora and fauna. This diversity is ascribed to the
country's topographic structure and its location at the crossroads of
three continents and the junction of different climatic and botanical
regions. Some 2,600 plant species (150 of which are indigenous to
Israel), as well as 8 amphibian, 90 reptile, 450 bird and 70 mammal
species are found in Israel. Therefore, it is not surprising that the
nature conservation movement preceded organized environmental
activity by over a decade. Stringent laws for the protection of
natural habitats, natural assets, wildlife and sites of scientific
and educational interest have been enacted and are stringently
enforced.
While awareness of the importance of nature
conservation has led to the emergence of a significant system of
nature reserves (155 nature reserves spanning 3500 square
kilometers-1350 sq. m.-have been declared) and national parks, the
small size of the country and the heavy pressures on its limited land
resources have left few open space reserves. In order to secure the
biodiversity and the visual resources of the country, Israel's green
organizations have launched a major campaign on behalf of the
preservation of Israel's open space landscapes in the face of
development pressures. As part of the effort, the country's entire
open landscape is being assessed and classified in accordance with
such criteria as uniqueness, biodiversity and potential for
sustainability. Recommendations are then made for appropriate levels
of protection and/or development for each landscape unit. First
priority is being accorded to the preservation of scarce open
landscapes in the central part of the country, where every vacant bit
of land is under immediate threat. Hopefully, Israel's recent
ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitats (the Ramsar Convention) will further advance
biodiversity and natural landscape conservation.
Water Quality
Indubitably, under conditions of water scarcity,
on the one hand, and intensive development and population growth, on
the other hand, the degradation of water quality may well be the most
critical environmental problem facing Israel today. Water resource
development and consumption have grown rapidly since the
establishment of the State of Israel so that today all feasible
resources are exploited.
About twothirds of Israel's population and a
major portion of its industry and agriculture are concentrated in the
region overlying the coastal aquifer, which has been increasingly
threatened by contamination from chemical and microbial pollutants,
salination, nitrates, heavy metals, fuels and toxic organic
compounds. Over the past 25 years, average chloride concentrations
have increased from 110 mg/liter to 150 mg/liter, and it is
anticipated that within 25 years, over half the wells in this region
will exceed permitted salinity levels. Nitrate concentrations have
increased concomitantly due to intensive use of fertilizers in
agriculture and the use of treated effluents for irrigation.
The combination of severe water shortage,
contamination of water resources, densely-populated urban areas and
highly intensive irrigated agriculture, makes it essential for Israel
to increase its development and use of treated wastewater, brackish
water and water harvesting (collection, storage and use of storm
runoff). At present, effluents constitute the most readily available
and cheapest source of additional water. Israel is already a world
leader in recycling wastewater with nearly 70% of the wastewater
treated and reused for agricultural purposes, mainly for the
irrigation of nonfood crops and animal fodder in accordance with
stringent permits issued by the Ministry of Health.
While water scarcity and groundwater contamination
remain major problems, there is no doubt that effective water quality
management can be achieved, as witnessed by the case of the Sea of
Galilee. As a result of a comprehensive and integrated program of
research, administration and planning, overall water quality in the
lake has not deteriorated and eutrophication has not occurred over
the past twenty years despite substantial growth in population,
tourism, industry and agricultural development in the area. In recent
years, similar management practices have been applied to Israel's
ailing rivers which have either dried up or become sewage conduits as
a result of industrial discharge, municipal sewage, overpumping or
just general abuse. Today, several of Israel's most polluted rivers
are undergoing a transformation from sewage carriers into channels of
life. Cleanup and rehabilitation programs have already been initiated
for such polluted rivers as the Harod, Alexander, Yarkon, Kishon and
Lachish rivers. The success of the rehabilitation scheme is largely
dependent on the success of sewage treatment programs which are
currently being implemented. Effluent regulations, promulgated in
1993, require secondary treatment to a level of 20 mg/liter BOD and
30 mg/liter suspended solids as a minimum baseline level. Higher
degrees of treatment, including nutrient removal and disinfection,
are required if effluents are to be discharged into rivers.
Air Quality
In Israel, as elsewhere in the world, rapid
technological development, improvement in standards of living and
increased population density have brought in their wake pollutant
emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. Israel's specific
conditions Ð concentration
of population and industry in the coastal area, small land area,
variety of natural assets and singular geological, topographical and
climatic features Ð aggravate the problems of air pollution. The rapid emergence of
industrial plants in the vicinity of urban centers coupled by a
dramatic increase in the number of motor vehicles has exacerbated air
pollution problems throughout the country.
National estimates of air pollutant emissions have
shown that with the exception of three pollutants Ð sulfur oxides, total particulate matter and lead Ð emissions of all pollutants have increased drastically since 1980. On
the positive side, results show that despite continuous increases in
the total national energy requirement, total sulfur dioxide (SO2)
emissions have been reduced significantly. This is generally
attributed to the shift from use of high-sulfur residual oil to
low-sulfur coal in Haifa and Ashdod's power plants in the 1980s and
the reduction in the average sulfur content of heavy residual oil in
the 1990s. Present SO2 control for Israel's oil-fired power plants is
based on tall stacks (250 meters) and on a switch to low-sulfur fuel
when mandated by an intermittent control system during meteorological
conditions unfavorable for the dispersion of pollutants. As a result
of these improvements, the ratio of SO2 emission to electricity
production has decreased to less than half of its 1981 value.
Similarly, reductions in suspended particulate matter emissions have
occurred largely as a result of the installation of high-efficiency
electrostatic precipitators in Israel's coal-powered stations.
On the down side, the sharp rises in carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are attributed to
the dramatic increase in the number of motor vehicles traveling
Israel's roads, a fourfold increase over the past two decades.
Without doubt, the major challenge in coming years will be to
significantly reduce pollution from vehicular sources. Transportation
sources are responsible for a lion's share of the country's carbon
monoxide pollution and for a substantial percentage of the
concentrations of lead, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and
particulates in the environment. With the exception of lead,
concentrations of all these pollutants have risen dramatically over
the past decade. Lead concentrations have decreased following the
reduction in the lead content of gasoline and the introduction of
lead-free gasoline.
Several steps have been taken to abate the
vehicular pollution problem; others are planned. Most importantly,
all new cars imported in to the country, beginning with 1995 models,
must be equipped with catalytic converters and concomitantly,
unleaded gasoline is being increasingly used. Since vehicles equipped
with catalytic converters emit only a tenth of the pollution
discharged from regular vehicles, the increased presence of these
cars should bring about a real reduction in vehicular emissions.
Additional solutions currently being considered include emission
standards, more effective inspection and supervision systems,
restrictions on private cars in city centers and, perhaps most
importantly, better mass transportation systems. Unless the
transportation network is significantly improved, congestion, with
its attendant ills of noise and air pollution, will soon become
unbearable.
Since the availability of nationwide data on air
quality is a prerequisite for the formulation of a comprehensive
national air quality management program, Israel has approved the
development of a multimillion dollar national air monitoring system
to complement the 63 air monitoring stations currently in operation
throughout the country. The system will include individual stations,
regional control centers and a national data processing and display
center. First priority will be granted to the congested Tel Aviv
metropolitan area.
Finally, on the international front, efforts are
being invested in implementing the provisions of the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the Climate
Change Convention. Although Israel is a small contributor to such
global trends, it has ratified both conventions and takes an active
part in international and regional efforts in these areas.
Solid Waste
Still another grave problem in a country with
meager land resources and an ever-increasing population is solid
waste disposal. Each person in Israel produces about 1.7 kilograms of
solid waste a day. The total quantity of municipal waste in Israel,
including yard waste and industrial waste, reaches 12,000 tons per
day. Another 5,000 tons of solid waste, including construction
debris, are produced daily.
Until recently, hundreds of garbage dumps were
spread throughout the country. Most were poorly designed and managed
and many were about to reach full capacity Ð with no alternative in sight. Continuous delays in the approval
process for new landfills, many a result of the NIMBY (Not in My Back
Yard) Syndrome, had left about two-thirds of Israel's population
without a comprehensive solution to the problem of solid waste
disposal.
Today, the outlook is brighter: several factors
have combined to dramatically improve Israel's solid waste disposal
problem. A landmark decision by the government has dictated the
closure of all illegal landfill sites and the transfer of the waste
to a few authorized central landfills, slated to serve the majority
of the country's population within a few years. Half the sites have
already been shut down, and plans are proceeding for the construction
of state-of-the-art landfills which fully comply with the most
stringent environmental requirements. On the legal front,
environmental regulations designed to prevent air and olfactory
pollution are being promulgated and enforced. Indictments of
operators of improperly run solid waste sites have resulted in court
sentences carrying stiff fines, and in many cases, legal proceedings
have led to the closure of polluting landfills.
If present rates of growth continue (5.5% per
year), a fourfold increase in municipal and industrial waste is
expected by the year 2020. Reduction, reuse and recycling are
therefore imperative in order to reduce these growing quantities of
waste. Today's policy calls for a shift from landfilling to
integrated treatment of solid waste based on reduction at source,
reuse, recycling, incineration and landfilling. Today, about 18% of
the total amount of municipal and industrial waste is recycled, of
which about 50% constitutes post-consumer recycling.
Hazardous Substances
Finally, safe management of hazardous substances
is one of Israel's most pressing environmental concerns. Israel has
thousands of plants which produce, use, store and transport about a
million tons of hazardous materials, excluding fuels. An accident or
mishap can bring catastrophic results, both in terms of human life
and environmental damage. In recent years, a contingency plan for the
integrated organization and operation of all bodies taking part in
hazardous substances accidents was formulated and implemented. As a
result, Israel's emergency response teams have undergone
comprehensive training and have equipped themselves with specially
designated vehicles, protective gear and sophisticated detection and
identification instruments. In addition, an Information and Response
Center for Hazardous Substances has been set up both to collect
quantitative and qualitative data on hazardous substances and to
serve as a focal point of response during hazardous substances
incidents-providing essential information, support and coordination
services.
Management of hazardous substances is regulated
through a permit system for any commercial activity involving
hazardous materials. Industrial plants handling hazardous substances
are required to undertake all necessary measures to treat these
materials according to the best available technology. Hazardous
wastes must be disposed at the central site for the disposal and
treatment of hazardous waste in Ramat Hovav, about 17 kilometers
south of Be'er Sheva in the Negev. Disposal elsewhere, for purposes
of recycling, reuse or other treatment, must be approved in advance
by the competent environmental agency. Israel's central site for
hazardous waste includes various plants for neutralization and
detoxification as well as evaporation ponds and burial sites in which
to bury solid wastes-all built in accordance with the US standards
for such burial of wastes. A state-of-the-art incinerator, capable of
burning about 15,000 tons of organic materials per year, is currently
being completed. The aim is to supervise hazardous substances from
"cradle to grave" and to implement the Basel Convention on
the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal which has been ratified by Israel.
Conclusion
Israel believes that sustainable development can
be achieved, that environmental degradation can be arrested and that
damaged areas can be restored. However, the realization of these
goals depends on cooperation at all levels of government and society.
As Israel enters a new era of peace, environmental
concerns are gaining new priority, internationally, nationally and
regionally. Thus, for example, mutual concern over the fate of the
Gulf of Aqaba has led to an ambitious action program of cooperation
between Jordan, Israel and Egypt. All three countries have committed
themselves to set up oil-spill combating centers and to establish and
implement a regional contingency plan for the protection of this
unique but sensitive region. In yet another development, an
Environmental Code of Conduct for the Middle East was adopted as part
of the multilateral peace talks on the environment to help all
parties work together against the common threats to their quality of
life and the environment. The new spirit of determination which is
accompanying the dawn of peace may well ensure that the unique
ecological values of this area of the world-its wide diversity of
flora and fauna, magnificent landscapes and renowned heritage
sites-will be protected not just for present generations, but for the
generations yet to come.
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