Ancient Arad
Ancient Arad is located in the
Negev, some 30 km. northeast of Be'er
Sheva, on a hill that rises 40 m. above the surrounding plain.
During the 18 seasons of
excavation conducted from 1962-1984, it became clear that the remains
of ancient Arad are located in two separate areas and are from two
distinct periods. The Canaanite city (3rd millennium BCE) was located
mainly on the southern slope of the hill. On the summit of this hill,
several fortresses were built in the period of the Kingdoms of Israel
and Judah (10th-6th centuries BCE) and also later, during the Persian,
Hellenistic and Roman periods (5th
century BCE to 4th century CE). In the Early Arab period (7th-10th
century), a fortified caravansary was established to protect the trade
routes which passed there.
Arad is mentioned in the Bible
in the story of the failed attempt to reach the Promised Land (Numbers
21:1) and in the list of the Canaanite kings defeated by the
Children of Israel. (Joshua 12:14)
There exists, however, a historical-chronological problem with this
biblical account, as there is no evidence that Tel (Heb., mound) Arad
was inhabited during the Late Bronze Age. Scholars suggest that the
King of Arad mentioned in the Bible was in fact the ruler of the
Kingdom of Arad, "the Negev of Arad" (Judges 1:16), whose
capital was another city.
The Canaanite City
During the Early Bronze Age
(2950-2650 BCE), Arad was a large, fortified and prosperous city. It
served as the capital of the important Canaanite kingdom, which ruled
over a large part of the northern Negev. The growth of Arad was part of
the rapid urbanization of the Land of Israel during the 3rd millennium
BCE. Technological development, such as the use of metal for plowing,
the domestication of animals and the planting of fruit trees, created
conditions for the establishment of large cities, even in outlying
areas such as Arad.
The climate in this region is
hot and dry and the amount of precipitation is minimal, but the
prosperity of a large Canaanite city must have depended on an
established agriculture. In the view of experts, the Negev enjoyed in
the past twice the amount of rain that falls today, thus making
intensive agriculture possible. The Canaanite inhabitants of Arad grew
wheat, barley and beans in the valley, and constructed earth dams in
the wadis (dry river beds) to increase the amount of water for the
orchards, mainly olive groves. Bones of goats, sheep and cattle, found
in the ruins of the city's houses, attest to another element in the
inhabitants' diet. The city was located at the crossroads of two main
trade routes - the one southward from the Judean Hills to the Negev and
Edom, and the other westward from the shores of the Dead
Sea, across the Negev, to the southern coast - which also
contributed to the prosperity of ancient Arad.
Canaanite Arad developed close
trade relations with Egypt, evidence of which are the numerous vessels
made in Egypt, and a fragment of a ceramic storage jar bearing the name
of Narmer, King of Egypt, found at Arad. Copper objects from the royal
mines in Sinai were acquired by the inhabitants of Arad, and probably
paid for with agricultural products, olive oil and livestock. Bitumen
originating from the Dead
Sea, used for the sealing of sailing vessels as well as storage
jars, and possibly also for mummifying, also made its way from the Dead
Sea via Arad to Egypt.
Canaanite Arad covered an area
of about 25 acres and had an estimated population of 2,500. The city
was surrounded by a fortified wall, some 1,200 m. long and 2.4 m.
thick, with many semi-circular or rectangular towers projecting from
it. Two gates and two posterns have been found thus far in the wall.
The city itself was very
carefully planned, with a network of streets. Along the inside of the
wall was the main ring road; and from the gates ran cross streets
towards the topographical depression at the city's center, which
drained rainwater into a large reservoir, thus guaranteeing continued
water supply during the long summers. The part of the city which has
been excavated, was divided into quarters, each with a specific
function: in the western part was the temple complex; in the south the
residential areas.
Dwelling
The residential area was
densely built-up, with streets and alleys between the blocks of houses.
Dwellings were of many sizes, the smallest ca. 50 sq.m. and the largest
ca. 150 sq.m., but similarly planned: a walled courtyard, one or two
living rooms and a small utility room or kitchen.
The typical living room in an
Arad house was rectangular and had an opening to the courtyard in one
of its long walls. The room, slightly below the level of the courtyard,
was reached by descending two or three steps. The opening was closed
with a wooden door, which pivoted in a socket in the stone threshold.
Along the walls were low stone benches and in the center of the room
was a stone base, on which a wooden pillar stood, supporting the roof
which was made of wooden beams, bundles of straw and plaster. Grinding
stones and a stone mortar for crushing grain were embedded in the
floor. Containers made of dried mud for the storage of grain and clay
stoves for heating and cooking were also found in the houses. A small
clay model of a living room was found in one of the houses, showing the
ceiling-high entrance and the flat roof.
Temples and a Palace
The sacred precinct and the
palace complex of the kings of Arad extended over enormous areas - each
about 1,000 sq.m. - in the western part of the city. The sacred
precinct included two twin temples dedicated to the gods of the city.
The larger of the twin temples
had two halls, one divided into three rooms, the smallest of which was
the holy-of-holies. In one of the rooms, a well-trimmed stone stele was
found standing upright, probably representing the god's presence in the
temple. In the courtyard stood a stone altar, and next to it a sunken,
ceremonial basin lined with stones, probably for ritual immersion.
The palace of the kings of
Canaanite Arad was comprised of several units. At its center were the
royal chambers - several large rooms. Around them were courtyards with
groups of rooms, which probably served as administration offices and
servants' quarters. In the palace grounds stood the royal storehouse,
in which storage installations and a large numbers of ceramic storage
vessels were found.
Stele
In the palace's central room,
a flat piece of chalk was found, on which two human figures had been
incised: one of the figures lying horizontally, the other standing
upright; the hands raised, with fingers outstretched; the heads
depicted as ears of grain.
The scene is known from
religious art of the ancient world and is interpreted as representing
the Mesopotamian god Tammuz in two phases of the endless cycle of
nature: the standing figure represents the half year of regeneration
and growth - life; the supine figure symbolizes the half of the year
during which plants wither - death.
Arad declined and was
abandoned in the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. The reasons for this
are not completely clear, but it is assumed that the climate became
hotter and drier, adversely influencing the settlements on the fringe
of the desert. Also, the nomadic populations of the Negev probably
endangered the trade routes, and the security of the city's population.
The Israelite Citadel
During the period of the
kingdoms of Israel and Judah (10th-6th centuries BCE), successive
citadels were built on the hill of Arad as part of a series of
fortifications protecting the trade routes in the Negev and the
southern border of the kingdom against marauding nomads.
The first of these citadels
was built by King Solomon (10th
century BCE). It measured 55 x 50 m. and was surrounded by a casemate
wall (two parallel walls with cross-walls between them) 5 m. thick, and
with a gate protected by two towers in its eastern side. Large towers
protruded from the corners and along the wall. Inside the citadel were
quarters for the garrison, storerooms, and a temple. A water reservoir
cut into the rock beneath the citadel was filled with water from a well
dug into the Canaanite reservoir south of the citadel. This well was
4.60 m. in diameter and 21 m. deep, to groundwater level, the upper
part carefully lined with stones. The water drawn from the well was
carried up the hill by pack animals to an opening in the wall of the
citadel, and from there flowed in a channel to the reservoir.
In the 9th century BCE, a new
citadel was built, surrounded by a massive, 4 m.-thick wall. This
citadel, with various modifications, remained in use until the
Babylonian conquest of the Kingdom of Judah in 587/6 BCE.
The Israelite Temple
Located in the northwestern
corner of the citadel, the temple comprised three rooms along an
east-west axis: ulam (entrance hall), heichal (main hall), and dvir
(holy-of-holies). To reach the dvir three steps had to be mounted to an
elevated platform, on which a one-meter high stone stele, painted red,
stood. Stone altars, 50 cm. high, flanked both sides of the entrance to
the dvir. The tops of the altars were concave and in them burnt organic
material was found. At the center of the large courtyard in front of
the temple was an altar built of bricks and stone, measuring 2.5 x 2.5
m. (5 x 5 biblical amot). It was probably similar to the altar
described in the Bible (Deut. 27:5)
and to that in the Temple in Jerusalem. (II
Chronicles 6:13)
The Israelite temple
discovered at Arad is the only one known outside of Jerusalem. It was
part of the first Israelite citadel there and served as a roadside
temple for travelers, merchants and the garrison of the citadel. This
temple was destroyed, apparently as a result of the religious reforms
of Hezekiah, King of Judah, at the end of the 8th century BCE. (II
Kings 18: 4, 22)
Ostraca (inscribed potsherds)
Over 100 ostraca inscribed in
biblical Hebrew (in paleo-Hebrew script) were found in the citadel of
Arad. This is the largest and richest collection of inscriptions from
the biblical period ever discovered in Israel. The letters are from all
periods of the citadel's existence, but most date to the last decades
of the kingdom of Judah. Dates and several names of places in the Negev
are mentioned, including Be'er Sheva.
Among the personal names are
those of the priestly families Pashur and Meremoth, both mentioned in
the Bible. (Jeremiah 20:1; Ezra
8:33) Some of the letters were addressed to the commander of the
citadel of Arad, Eliashiv ben Ashiyahu, and deal with the distribution
of bread (flour), wine and oil to the soldiers serving in the
fortresses of the Negev. Seals bearing the inscription "Eliashiv
ben Ashiyahu" were also found.
Some of the commander's
letters (probably "file" copies) were addressed to his
superior and deal with the deteriorating security situation in the
Negev. In one of them, he gives warning of an emergency and requests
reinforcements to be sent to another citadel in the region to repulse
an Edomite invasion. Also, in one of the letters, the "house of
YHWH" is mentioned.
Inscription 1
To Eliashib: And now, give
the Kittiyim 3 baths of wine, and write the name of the day. And from
the rest of the first flour, send one homer in order to make bread for
them. Give them the wine from the aganoth vessels.
Inscription 24
From Arad 50 and from
Kin[ah]...
and you shall send them to Ramat-Negev by the hand of Malkiyahu the son
of Kerab'ur and he shall hand them over to Elisha the son of Yirmiyahu
in Ramat-Negev, lest anything should happen to the city. And the word
of the king is incumbent upon you for your very life! Behold, I have
sent to warn you today: [Get] the men to Elisha: lest Edom should come
there.
Inscription 40
Your son Gemar[yahu] and
Nehemyahu gre[et] Malkiyahu; I have blessed [you to the Lor]d and now:
your servant has listened to what [you] have said, and I [have written]
to my lord [everything that] the man [wa]nted, [and Eshiyahu ca]me from
you and [no] one [gave it to] them. And behold you knew [about the
letters from] Edom (that) I gave to [my] lord [before sun]set. And [E]shi[yah]u
slept [at my house], and he asked for the letter, [but I didn't gi]ve
(it). The King of Judah should know [that w]e cannot send the [..., and
th]is is the evil that Edo[m has done].
Sources: Israeli
Foreign Ministry |