The Evolution of Armed Jewish Defense in Palestine
by Me'ir Pa'il
From the time the modern Jewish community in Palestine
became an entity following the first and second aliyot (waves of immigration) —
from 1870 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914 — every Jewish town,
neighborhood and farm faced the necessity of protecting
itself. These defense organizations would eventually evolve into the Israel Defense Forces, one of the world's best military fighting forces.
- The Ottoman Period
- World War I
- First 20 Years of British Rule
- World War II
- Anti-British Struggle
- War of Independence
The Ottoman Period
During the Ottoman period, protection was necessary mainly against local Arab
thieves, individuals and organized gangs.
Jewish security organizations evolved in several phases. At first, Jewish
settlements designated at least one person to be responsible for the security
of the built-up area and, when necessary, the fields. This guard, armed with a
personal weapon (a rifle and, in most cases, also a handgun) operated by day
and by night, on horseback or on foot. As time passed, these guards hired
Arabs for guard duty, especially at night. The method proved inefficient
because soon the Arab guards began to collaborate with the thieves and
bandits. As a result, in a few settlements (Zikhron Ya'akov is one example)
young Jewish settlers organized small groups for guard duty on a voluntary
basis, having learned the art of guarding and securing their settlements from
the very few professionals.
In these circumstances, with guard duties in most settlements carried out
by Arabs, and in some villages by young Jewish "irregular"
volunteers — the Bar Giora organization was founded in 1907 in the home of Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, who later became Israel's second president, in Neve
Tzedek,
near Jaffa. Bar Giora established the first communes of Jewish guards at
Sejera. From within these communes of workers and guards Hashomer was founded
in 1909, defining itself as a countrywide organization that would assume
responsibility for the security of as many Jewish settlements as possible. Hashomer's condition, before undertaking to guard and secure any settlement,
was that only Jewish laborers be employed in it. Hashomer was thus able to
regard these laborers as a reserve for guard duty and quickly organized its
operations in a three-tiered hierarchy: a small core of founders (veterans of Bar Giora); a larger circle of active guards, members of Hashomer; and the
Jewish laborers, who termed themselves a "labor legion", as
reserves.
In 1913, the Hashomer leadership established relations with the
institutions of the Zionist Organization in Europe, but this connection was
disrupted in August 1914 when World War I broke out. Hashomer continued its
security assignments in Palestine as before, taking pains to deny the Ottoman regime any pretext to liquidate it. An additional security organization came
into being at this time: the Jaffa Group, comprised of young people who
provided security services for Tel Aviv and the Jewish community in Jaffa. The
leading personality in Hashomer throughout its existence (1909-1920), was
Yisrael Shohat; the main figure in the Jaffa Group was Eliyahu Golomb.
World War I
In Palestine under Ottoman rule, young men who lived in the moshavot around
Zikhron Ya'akov formed an organization called the Gideonites. During the war,
this organization served as the basis for NILI (the initials of netzah yisrael
lo yeshaker — I Sam. 15:29), which engaged in active espionage for Great
Britain, under the leadership of the agronomist Aaron Aaronson. On the other
hand, during the war several thousand Jewish residents of Palestine were
inducted into the Turkish army; a few of them were trained and appointed as
officers and NCOs in the Turkish army. Examples are Moshe Sharett, Dov Hoz
(who later deserted to the British army), Alexander Aaronson, and Elimelekh
Zelikovich (Avner); the latter eventually became a senior commander in the Haganah.
Important developments in the military sector of the Zionist enterprise
took place during World War I in the British army, which fought against the
Turks. The first of these developments occurred in Egypt in 1915, when the
Zion Mule Corps was formed, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel John Henry
Patterson, an Irishman, and Captain Joseph Trumpeldor. The Zion Mule Corps
joined the British Expeditionary Force that landed on the Gallipoli peninsula
in the Dardanelles (May 1915) and saw action there until the British were
forced to evacuate their strongholds (January 1916). Almost all the soldiers
of this corps were Jews who had been expelled by the Turkish authorities from
Palestine because of their alien citizenship.
Only after the setback in Gallipoli and relentless petitioning in British
government circles in London by Jabotinsky, Rutenberg and Trumpeldor did the
British War Office agree, in September 1917, to the formation of a new
infantry regiment based on nearly one hundred veterans of the Mule Corps who
had come to Britain, plus Jewish emigres from Russia who had settled in
Britain and agreed to join a Jewish combat unit. Thus, the 38th King's
Fusiliers came into being in southern England under the command of
Lieutenant-Colonel Patterson, the former commander of the Zion Mule Corps,
which had been dismantled. In February 1918, the 38th Fusiliers was
transferred to Egypt, and took part in the British offensive of September 1918
under General Edmund Allenby. The regiment, then stationed in the Jordan
Valley near Jericho, participated in crossing the Jordan river eastward in the
direction of Salt. Vladimir (Ze'ev) Jabotinsky was a deputy commander of this
regiment, with the honorary rank of lieutenant.
A second Jewish regiment, the 39th King's Fusiliers, was formed in Britain
immediately after the 38th shipped out. The 39th Fusiliers, composed of Jewish
volunteers from the United States and Canada, plus Jewish emigres from Russia,
was sent to Egypt in April 1918 under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel
Eliezer Margolin, who had led a battalion in the Australian expeditionary
force on the French front. During its maneuvers in Egypt, this regiment began
to absorb Palestinian Jewish volunteers who had enlisted in the British army
after the British occupied the southern half of Palestine. The trained half of
this regiment fought alongside the 38th King's Fusiliers in September 1918.A
third Jewish regiment, the 40th King's Fusiliers, was created on the basis of
Jewish volunteers from the United States and Canada (including David
Ben-Gurion and Itzhak Ben-Zvi, who had been expelled from Palestine by the
Turks, as well as Dov Joseph and Nehemia Rabin). This regiment, commanded by
Lieutenant-Colonel Samuel, reached Egypt in August 1918 and began to take on
Jewish volunteers who had come over from Palestine (including Eliyahu Golomb,
Dov Hoz, Berl Katznelson, and several members of Hashomer). The 40th King's
Fusiliers was transferred from Egypt to Palestine, but too late to see action.
Almost all the members of the three Jewish regiments were discharged
immediately after the end of World War I in November 1918. Those from Britain
and Palestine returned to their respective countries and some of those from
North America settled in Palestine to realize their Zionist convictions.
Representatives of the Zionist Executive in Britain and Palestine persuaded
the British authorities to establish a Jewish volunteer regiment (commanded by
Lieutenant-Colonel Eliezer Margolin), as part of the armed forces garrisoned
in Palestine. This regiment, known as the First Judeans, was organized in 1919
at Sarafand (now Tsrifin), but the British did not allow it to take part in
either the incidents in Tel Hai and Jerusalem in 1920, nor during the Arab
disturbances in May 1921. Thereafter, when violence broke out on the border
between Jaffa and Tel Aviv, Margolin sent part of the regiment into action on
his own initiative. In response, the British disbanded it.
The First Twenty Years of British Rule in Palestine (1919-1939)
The disbandment of the First Judeans vindicated those Zionist leaders who
argued against reliance on British patronage for the development of a military
force. In 1920 the Haganah was formed as a "grassroots" military
organization, admittedly illegal from the British point of view but regarded
by its founders, who were also the founders of the Histadrut (the General
Federation of Jewish Labor), as a full-fledged national armed force,
subordinate to an elected political leadership and authorized to use its
military potential in defense of the yishuv's interests. For its first ten
years, the Haganah was subordinated to the elected public institutions of the
Histadrut, since the elected political institutions of the Zionist
Organization and of the yishuv were not yet prepared to accept responsibility
for this illegal military entity. In the aftermath of the 1929 disturbances,
and after two years of discussions among leaders of Zionist parties across the
political spectrum, the Haganah was transferred to the joint authority of the
Jewish Agency Executive and the Va'ad Leumi (National Council). In 1931, the Haganah was placed under the authority of a parity committee — an evenly-split
political High Command composed of six political figures — three representing
the "Left" (among them Eliyahu Golomb and Dov Hoz) and three
representing the "Right" (among them Sa'adya Shoshani and Yissaschar
Sidkov). Thus the Haganah became a national military organization, subordinate
to the nation's elected leadership. Although the British, as well as the
Arabs, considered the Haganah illegal, the yishuv regarded it as a legitimate
popular military organization. Every rural settlement — moshava, moshav,
kibbutz — and every Jewish town or neighborhood was affiliated with the Haganah, and the identity of the Haganah district commander was known to most
inhabitants.
In 1931 a group of Haganah members seceded from the organization, refusing
to accept the authority of the parity committee — High Command. Shortly
afterwards, from 1932 on, the breakaway group, headed by Avraham Tehomi,
became known as the National Military Organization (Irgun tzeva'i le'umi) or
its acronym, Etzel. This organization received the full backing of Ze'ev
Jabotinsky's Revisionist Party and partial support from factions of the
right-wing General Zionists and the Mizrahi.
During the disturbances of 1936-1939 — called by the Arabs the "Arab
uprising" — strategic interests persuaded the British governments in
Jerusalem and London to allow a certain degree of military collaboration
between the British army and police and the Haganah. This cooperation gave the Haganah a measure of legality for three years, manifested in the Supernumery
Police venture that lasted until 1948 and in the fraternity of arms with
Captain Orde Charles Wingate. In 1938, the Jewish Agency Executive decided to
appoint a nationwide leader for the Haganah; a non-partisan personality who
would be chairman of the High Command. The first to fill this position was
Yohanan Ratner. Some eighteen months later, in September 1939, after thorough
discussion by the High Command and the political bodies to which it was
subordinate — the Jewish Agency Executive and the National Council — it was
decided to appoint a professional Military General Staff (M.G.S.) which would
be in command of all military components and operations of the various Haganah bodies. The M.G.S. functioned under the authority of the High Command; the
first Chief of the General Staff was Ya'akov Dori (Dostrovsky).
Etzel experienced a crisis during the first year of the Arab
"disturbances." In April 1937, half of its members (about 1500), led
by Avraham Tehomi himself, abandoned it and returned to the Haganah. The other
half continued in Etzel, which now answered to the political authority of the Revisionist Zionist Organization under Ze'ev Jabotinsky. Etzel rejected the Haganah's moderate policy against the Arabs, the so-called
"restraint" (havlaga) doctrine of the elected Zionist leadership,
and adopted a policy of intimidation and terror.
The Arab rebellion was quelled in the 1938-39 period by British forces in
cooperation with the Haganah, which mobilized more than 20,000 Jewish
supernumery police plus the field troops under Yitzhak Sadeh and the special
night squads of Captain Orde Charles
Wingate.
World War II (1939-1945)
After about two decades of activity, clear indications of extensive
professional institutionalization became evident. "Regional Defense"
had come into being, as had Field Troops that operated for about two years
(1937-1939). By this time, the Haganah had created a Field Corps, a Medical
Service, a Signals Corps, an Intelligence service, Aliya Bet (which handled
illegal immigration), an arms industry and services for the procurement and
storage of weapons. The country was divided into operational districts and a
professional military journal called Ma'arakhot (campaigns) made its debut. In
1941, the "Youth regiments" (Gadna) and the "Strike Force"
(Palmach) were formed. In the same year, the tenets of the Haganah,
emphasizing the national and Zionist character of the Haganah, as the sole
military force of the Zionist enterprise and of the Jewish state-in-the-making,
were formulated:
The Haganah is the military force of the Jewish people which strives for
political independence in the Land of Israel.
The Haganah answers to the authority of the World Zionist Organization in
conjunction with the organized Jewish community in the Land, is at their
service and obeys their orders.
The functions of the Haganah are: 1) to defend the Jewish community in
Palestine against attack on its people, property, and dignity; 2) to defend
the Zionist enterprise and the political rights of the Jewish people in the
Land of Israel; and 3) to defend the Land of Israel against enemy action from
outside its borders, commensurate with its capabilities and political
circumstances.
The Haganah serves the entire nation, the entire yishuv, and the entire
Zionist movement. Its flag is the national flag — blue and white. Its anthem
is the national anthem, Hatikva. Any Jewish man or woman willing and able to
undertake the tasks of national defense may join the Haganah.
The Haganah is absolved from the laws of the non-Jewish government. Its
existence, its weapons and its operations are subject to painstaking secrecy.
Those who breach this principle do so at the risk of their lives.
The Haganah educates its members to allegiance to the Jewish people and
Eretz Israel, love of freedom and Jewish revival, courage, endurance in the
face of suffering and adversity, willingness to sacrifice, respect for human
life, honesty of character, simplicity and respect for human and Jewish
values.
When World War II broke out and Britain took on a key role in fighting
against Nazi Germany, the Zionist leadership realized that direct or indirect
military action against the British was out of the question, even though the British White Paper policy (May 1939) severely restricted Jewish immigration and land-acquisition rights. David Ben-Gurion, chairman of the Zionist
Executive, ruled that the Zionist movement and the yishuv would cooperate with
Britain against the Nazis on the military level but would continue to resist
the White Paper in matters of immigration and settlement.
The Etzel, in contrast, was engulfed in controversy. The Revisionist
leadership ruled that, notwithstanding the White Paper, Jews should cooperate
with Britain against the Nazis on the military level. A smaller group, led by Abraham (Yair) Stern, deemed Britain to be the bitter enemy of Zionism, which
should be fought militarily by means of guerrilla action and terrorism. After Jabotinsky died in 1940, this group seceded from the Etzel and began to
operate separately under the name "Etzel in Israel" (popularly known
as the Stern group). After the murder of Stern by the British in February
1942, the new leaders of the group (Natan Yellin-Mor, Yitzhak Shamir, and
Yisrael Eldad) reorganized their underground group under the name Lohamei
Herut Yisrael (Jewish Freedom Fighters) and its acronym, Lehi.
Of great importance to the development of armed Jewish defense in Palestine
were the more than 30,000 Palestinian Jews who enlisted in the British army in
the course of World War II. In the last stages of the war, the Jewish Brigade
Group was established and saw action against the Nazis in northern Italy. The
Palestinian Jews in the British army and air force learned a broad range of
military subjects — combat, administration, technology and logistics of a
modern army — and transferred this knowledge to the Jewish defense forces in
Palestine. This was to be of great use to the Israel Defence Forces, offspring
of the Haganah, to be established during the War of
Independence.
The
Anti-British Struggle (1945-1948)
After the end of WWII, between October 1945 and the beginning of the War of Independence in December 1947, the Haganah was the largest and most important
Jewish military force that operated against the British. Its acting chief of
staff, Yitzhak Sadeh, was the most senior and most authoritative personality
in the "Jewish resistance movement." The Haganah carried out
anti-British military operations — liberation of interned immigrants from the
Atlit camp; the bombing of the country's railroad network ("Night of the
Trains"); sabotage raids on radar installations and bases of the British
police mobile force; sabotage of British vessels that engaged in deporting
clandestine immigrants and destruction of all road and railroad bridges on the
borders ("Night of the Bridges").
It was also the Haganah, under
Shaul Avigur (Meirov), that operated the mass clandestine, illegal immigration
from Europe and North Africa in 1944-1948, on the escape (Beriha) trails and
maritime routes, as well as overland from Middle Eastern countries.
Furthermore, the Haganah provided military protection for the country-wide
Jewish settlement enterprise, which took place in defiance of the constraints
imposed by the British land laws. One such operation was the establishment of
eleven settlements in the Negev on the night after Yom Kippur 1946, under the
command of the deputy chief of staff of the Haganah, Yosef Avidar (Rokhel). The Etzel and Lehi were, of course, also active in the resistance movement, their
many operations focusing mainly on individual terrorism and guerrilla warfare
against the British. Examples are the bombing of the British government and
military headquarters at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, raids on British
air force bases at Qastina and near Kfar Syrkin, liberation of Jewish
prisoners from the prison in Acre, and sabotage of the railroad repair
workshop near Haifa.
The War Of Independence (1948-49)
In the daily Order of the Establishment of the Israel Defence
Forces,
issued in the midst of the invasion by Arab armies on May 31, 1948, Prime
Minister David Ben-Gurion made the following statement: "Vast is the debt
that the yishuv and the Jewish people owe the Haganah during all the phases of
the founding [of the state], in Petah Tikva, Rishon Lezion, Gedera, Rosh Pina,
Zikhron Ya'akov and Metulla, via Hashomer of the Second Aliya vanguard, the Jewish Legion in the First World War [the three fusilier regiments, the 38th,
the 39th and the 40th], the defenders of Tel Hai and the steady growth of a
national defense organization in the period between the two world wars, the
formation of the supernumery police corps during the disturbances of
1936-1939, the founding of the Palmach and the Field Corps, the mass
volunteering in the Second World War and the formation of the first Jewish
Brigade and up to the mighty struggle by the Haganah in the first half of the
war against us, from 30 November 1947 to 31 May 1948.
Were it not for the
experience, the planning, the operational and command ability, the loyalty and
spirit of valor of the Haganah, the yishuv could not have withstood the
terrible, bloody ordeal that has come upon us these past six months and we
would not have attained the State of Israel. In the annals of the Jewish
people, the chapter on the Haganah will glow with a grandeur and pride that
will never tarnish. Thus, it was the Haganah that was responsible for
defense, security, retaliation, and counterattack against the Arab-Palestinian
enemy, the foreign Arab volunteers and the Arab regular armies which invaded
Palestine after 30 November 1947, the beginning of the War of
Independence. It
accomplished this mission until June 1, 1948, when the Israel Defence Forces -
the IDF — officially came into being, several days after the provisional
government passed a resolution to this effect (May 26).
The IDF was not an ex
nihilo product but an evolutionary and natural development of the Haganah,
having inherited from it the General Staff and its Chief, the combat units,
the operational and logistical formations, the air and naval arms, procurement
and manufacture of arms, intelligence services and mobilization systems. It
was the IDF, the offspring of the Haganah, that brought to an end the military
campaign that the Haganah had begun in the War of
Independence.
Sources: Israeli
Foreign Ministry
Colonel (res.) Meir Pa'il, Ph.D. is the academic director of the Galili
Center for Defense-"Haganah" Studies
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