The Jewish presence in the Netherlands [Holland] began, and nearly ended, in tragedy: The first Jews came after being expelled from Spain, and the huge community was decimated 350 years later by the Holocaust. In between, Dutch Jews contributed to one of the most prosperous and enlightened eras in the history of the Netherlands. The history of Jews in the Netherlands was different than their experience in any other country. There was a concerted effort by Jewish leaders during the Holocaust to preserve Dutch Judaism, which was still decimated by deportations. Today, the Jewish community of the Netherlands numbers approximately 29,700.

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Early History
New Beginnings
Jews in the "Golden Age"
Emancipation Debate
Holocaust Era
Modern Period
Relations with Israel and the Palestinians

Early History

The earliest Jews likely arrived in the “Low Countries,” present-day Belgium and the Netherlands, during the Roman conquest early in the common era. Little is known about these early settlers other than that they were not numerous. For some time, the Jewish presence consisted of, at most, small, isolated communities and scattered families. Reliable documentary evidence dates only from the 1100s; for several centuries, the record reflects that the Jews were persecuted and expelled regularly. Early sources from the 11^th and 12^th centuries mention official debates or Disputationes between Christians and Jews, in which attempts were made to convince the Jews of the truth of Christianity and to try to convert them. It is not certain whether the Jews were residents in the area or whether they were just passing through.

Sources indicate that Jews lived in the areas of Brabant and Limburg as of the 13th century, mainly in cities such as Brussels, Leuven, Tienen, and Maastricht. Sources from the 14^th century also mention Jewish residents in Antwerp and Mechelen and in the northern region of Geldern.

Between 1347 and 1351, the entire area covering Europe was hit by the plague or Black Death, and this led to a new theme in medieval anti-Semitic rhetoric. The Jews were held responsible for the epidemic, and for the way, it was rapidly spreading because, presumably, they were the ones who had poisoned the water of the springs used by the Christians. Various medieval chronicles mention this, e.g., those of Radalphus de Rivo (c. 1403) of Tongeren, who wrote about how the Jews were murdered in the Brabant region and in the city of Zwolle because they were accused of spreading the Black Death. This accusation was added to the other traditional blood libels against the Jews, such as piercing the Host used for communion and using Christian children as an offering during Passover. For this reason, local Jewish communities were often murdered in part or entirely or exiled. Thus, in May 1370, six Jews were burned at the stake in Brussels because they were accused of theft and of desecrating the Holy Sacrament.

In addition to these drastic measures, traces can also be found of abusing and insulting Jews, e.g., in the cities of Zutphen, Deventer, and Utrecht, for allegedly desecrating the Host. Rioters massacred most of the Jews in the region and expelled those who survived.

For the next two hundred years, the number of Jews in the area was likely close to zero. By the time the Dutch principalities rebelled against Spain late in the sixteenth century to form the United Provinces of the Netherlands, there were probably no Jews left.

Interestingly, while the Jews were numerically inconsequential in the region during medieval times, their place in the Low Countries’ culture was much more prominent. A significant portion of the surviving literature and poetry from that era is rife with anti-Semitic references, and contemporary Christian legends emphasize the perfidy of the Jews and their role in the death of Jesus.

News Beginnings

From the 15^th century, Jews also resided in the Northern Netherlands. Their most important occupation was moneylending, making them dependent on the economies of the cities. In this way, Nijmegen became an important financial marketplace where many Jewish families came to settle. Nonetheless, Jews continued to choose the large cities in the Southern Netherlands as their home base.

In the 16^th century, Antwerp became a very important location for Jewish tradesmen and moneylenders because of its flourishing economy. This also became a refuge for many Marranos who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal by the Inquisition after 1492. Jewish bankers usually settled there using a Christian pseudonym. Born into a distinguished family of bankers, Francisco Mendes opened a branch in Antwerp, one of Europe’s largest banks. After he died in 1536, it was run by his wife, Gracia Nasi. The flourishing Jewish trade in Antwerp ended, however, when The Netherlands was divided during King Philip II’s reign. By the end of the century, many Jews had taken refuge in the Northern Netherlands, especially in Amsterdam, where they had formed a community.

Amsterdam, however, did not recognize religions other than Protestantism. The community was discovered, and its leaders were arrested in 1603. As a result, some of the newly acknowledged Jews moved to Alkmaar, Rotterdam, and Haarlem, extending them protective charters. The majority, however, remained in Amsterdam and even founded a second community there in 1608.

A drawing of the “Snoga” Sephardi synagogue.

The Protestant Church, the official religion of the state, was furious that the Jews were not being repressed, but secular authorities were not eager to punish the Jews, who had become important traders and merchants. New statutes regarding religious tolerance were issued in 1619 to clear up the religious controversy. These new laws left the decisions regarding Jews completely in the hands of individual city rulers. Amsterdam itself declared that Jews were welcome, but not as citizens; they could practice freely but were somewhat limited in their commercial and political rights. Most cities followed Amsterdam’s example, though some cities granted Jews complete rights, and others prohibited Jewish settlement altogether. Thus, the overall status of Jews in the Netherlands remained inconsistent but was generally in the Jews’ favor.

The first Ashkenazi Jews arrived in Amsterdam in 1620 and formed a community by 1635. The Ashkenazim, who first came from Germany and later from Eastern Europe, also settled elsewhere in the Netherlands, particularly Rotterdam and the Hague. The Ashkenazim in the Netherlands soon became superior to the Sephardim in numbers, but, except for a few wealthy Ashkenazi families, they remained inferior socially and economically.

Politically, the Jews were, for the most part, left to their own devices. Their internal affairs were managed by the kehilla, the Jews’ semi-autonomous governing body. The Jews judged themselves in bet dins (religious courts), organized their own educational system, and appointed leaders from within their ranks. This political isolation from the rest of society on the part of the Jews was typical in Europe in this period.

Jews in the “Golden Age”

In other ways, however, the Netherlands’ Jewish community was atypical. While in general, European Jews isolated themselves economically and socially as well as politically, the Jews of the Netherlands enjoyed, as early as the seventeenth century, economic and social integration that the rest of European Jewry would not know for hundreds of years. Professions like medicine became very popular, and Jewish physicians were free to practice even among non-Jews. More importantly, the Jews, particularly the Sephardim, played a large role in the economic expansion that elevated the Netherlands to a world center in the 1600s. The Portuguese Jews, with their knowledge of languages and connections to the international trade network of Jews and Marranos, became important in the shipping and trading industries. Several Jews were important shareholders in the East Indies Company, which dominated international trade during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Jews became prominent in other businesses, succeeding in the tobacco, sugar refining, and printing industries. Most of all, the diamond industry soon became an almost exclusively Jewish occupation due to its success in it.

Because of their economic integration, Jews in the Netherlands eventually united with the greater society to a much larger extent than any other Jewish community in this period. While they continued to be governed by the kehilla, they lived not in a ghetto but in a Jewish quarter, which the Jews were free to leave and which was frequented by non-Jews – the artist Rembrandt, for example, lived and worked in the Jewish quarter. The anti-Semitic violence that was still prevalent in Germany and Eastern Europe was non-existent in the Netherlands. Christian conversions to Judaism, while not common, were not unheard of, and secular scholars were remarkably knowledgeable about Judaism – at a time when most of Europe believed in the blood libel that the Talmud required the blood of a Christian child to be baked into matzah, scholars in Amsterdam were studying the Mishna and the Talmud, and even composing poetry in Hebrew. Reciprocally, some Jewish artists and authors made significant contributions to the flourishing culture of the Dutch Golden Age.

Baruch Spinoza

This account of the Jews’ welfare and integration, however, is subject to a caveat: It was only the Sephardic Jews who were succeeding so well in the Netherlands. The more numerous Ashkenazim were closer to a proletariat than a merchant class. They continued to speak primarily Yiddish, made no lasting contributions to Dutch culture, and, more surprisingly, made few contributions to their own. While many important rabbinical works were published in the Netherlands because of the excellent printing industry, few, if any, were composed there. The Ashkenazi community never produced its own rabbis and was forced to import them from abroad. Nonetheless, Ashkenazim in the Netherlands faced less persecution than their brethren in the rest of Europe and were better off.

While the relations between Jews and society were favorable in this period, the internal life of the Jews was far from perfect. Religious divisions led to several schisms that split the often-polarized community. The most apparent division was that between the Jews of different nationalities: The Sephardim, the Jews of Portuguese origins, maintained a kehilla separate from that of the Ashkenazim. The Ashkenazim were split into two kehillas, German and Polish, until 1673, when the municipal authority ordered them to unite. Further tension resulted from the messianic frenzy that greeted the announcement in 1665 that Shabbetai Zvi was the messiah and the subsequent dismay when he converted to Islam. Within both the Ashkenazi and Sephardi communities of Amsterdam, factions loyal to the false messiah battled with those who denounced him as a heretic. In 1713, the ongoing feud resulted in the dismissal of Chief Rabbi Zvi Ashkenazi; by that point, of course, Shabbetai Zvi was long dead.

Finally, religious controversy engulfed Amsterdam communities when an increasing number of apostates appeared on the scene. Philosopher Baruch Spinoza, who made important contributions to the Netherlands’ culture and scholarship, was excommunicated by all of the leaders of the Amsterdam communities. Uriel da Costa, another famous heretic of the era, was also banned. On a smaller scale, in 1618, the Sephardi community split over how liberal their community should be, and a group of strictly Orthodox Jews left the kehilla to begin their own. By 1639, however, that rift had been mended.

Emancipation Debate

By the mid-eighteenth century, the Netherlands was in a serious decline. As England and France began to catch up to and then surpass the Dutch efforts in trade and shipping, the prosperity that the Netherlands had enjoyed was replaced by economic instability. At the same time, the Enlightenment moved the focus of European culture and scholarship from the Netherlands to France. Matters grew even worse during the Anglo-Dutch war of 1780-1784 and the subsequent popular revolt that resulted in the French occupation of the Netherlands – trade dwindled to near zero, and a full-fledged economic crisis affected Jews and non-Jews alike. Consequently, the gap between Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews steadily narrowed. By the end of the eighteenth century, 54% of the Jewish population survived only on charity, a figure that was roughly the same in both Jewish ethnic groups.

Dissatisfied with their economic situation and influenced by the nearby French Revolution, Jews began to lobby for emancipation and the abolition of the autonomous kehilla. The Batavian Republic, France’s puppet government in the Netherlands, officially instituted emancipation on September 2, 1796, but the rights granted to the Jews were rebuffed by a large percentage of the community, who wanted to retain their political separateness. The kehilla split into two factions: One wanted to be emancipated, and the other refused. The government sided with the pro-emancipation camp, and so did Napoleon Bonaparte after he annexed the Netherlands and turned it into the Kingdom of Holland.

Members of a Labor Zionist organization prepare for immigration to a kibbutz in Palestine.

Despite the technical emancipation, there was no actual change in the situation of the Jews for some time due to the turmoil that was affecting the region. Napoleon’s wars and eventual defeat worsened the Netherlands’ bad economic situation. When, in 1814, a coup again changed the country’s political landscape, the ruler of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands inherited a Jewish population composed of nearly 60% paupers. For the first time, the Sephardim were even worse off than the Ashkenazim. However, improvements were not long coming now that the Netherlands was once again an independent country. An economic boom benefitted the Jews, who became active in the cotton industry and returned to the diamond industry. As their prosperity grew, so too did their rights. King William I began to regulate the Jewish community’s internal affairs, effectively disbanding the Netherlands kehilla; he instituted compulsory secular education for Jewish children; and he waged a determined battle against Yiddish, which resulted in the Jews’ widespread adoption of Dutch. The government’s efforts were aided by those of the Dutch maskilim, who favored integration. Soon, Jews infiltrated the professional classes, and many became doctors and lawyers.

The new opportunities for Jews were most available in the cities, consolidating nearly all the Netherlands’ Jews in urban locations by the end of the nineteenth century. Not surprisingly, the integration into secular society impacted the religiosity of Dutch Jewry. Orthodoxy lost its influence to Liberalism, and the Jewish population gradually declined due to conversions, intermarriage, and a low birthrate. As a result, the Jewish nationalist movement never got a foothold in the region, and Zionism never achieved the popularity that it did elsewhere in Europe.

The Holocaust Era

From 1939-1940, 34,000 refugees entered the Netherlands as Jews fled Nazi Germany. The Netherlands maintained an open-door policy for immigration. In 1940, at the time of the German invasion, 140,000 Jews lived in Holland. Jews represented 1.6 percent of the total population. This figure includes refugees from Germany, Austria, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. These refugees would be no better off in the Netherlands.

A sign reading “Jewish quarter” in German and “Jewish neighborhood” in Dutch.

The Germans installed a civil administration under the control of the SS. Arthur Seyss-Inquart was appointed Reich Commissar. He presided over a German administration that included many Austrian-born Nazis. They, in turn, supervised the Dutch civil service.

Soon after the Nazi occupation, the first anti-Jewish laws required all Jews to register themselves as Jews and removed them from their professions, their schools, and their homes. They were also required to register the assets of their businesses. A total of 159,806 persons were registered, including 19,561 persons born of mixed marriages.

A Jewish council was established in February 1941. On February 25, Dutch workers went on strike to protest the arrest of several hundred Jews who were sent to Buchenwald and Mauthausen. The German authorities and their Dutch collaborators subsequently segregated Jews from the general Dutch population and imprisoned 15,000 Jews in forced labor camps.

In late 1941, a deportation plan was enacted, providing for the removal of the Jews from all the provinces and their concentration in Amsterdam. This phase was launched on January 14, 1942, beginning with the town of Zaandam. The Dutch nationals among the Jews were ordered to move to Amsterdam, while those who were stateless were sent to the Westerbork camp. Other Jews were sent to the Vught camp. By the end of April 1942, Jews were required to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothing.

It was difficult to escape from the Netherlands, so most were forced to hide with non-Jews or forge documents with the help of non-Jews. The most famous Dutch Jews who went into hiding were the Franks, who survived for several years hidden in an Amsterdam building before being captured on August 4, 1944. The diary kept by Anne Frank has become the most widely-read account of life during the Holocaust. Ultimately, 25,000-30,000 Jews went into hiding, many with the assistance of the Dutch underground; two-thirds of them survived.

The Netherlands had 5,778 Righteous Among the Nations, the second-highest number of saviors after the 6,992 rescuers in Poland. Not all the Dutch were so righteous. In fact, many betrayed Jews for money. An Amsterdam group called the Henneicke Column received 7.5 guldens for every Jew delivered to the Germans, a reward that was later raised to 40 guldens. As many as 9,000 Jews may have been killed because of their betrayal.

Cnaan Liphshiz noted the Queen mentioned the persecution of Jews only three times in her 48 radio speeches while living in exile in the United Kingdom – “all in general terms and after mentioning other cruelties visited on the general population.”

The Nazis deported 12,296 Jews on October 2, 1942. In May 1943, the rate of deportations was accelerated. The last train left Westerbork for Auschwitz on September 3, 1944. During these two years, 107,000 Jews were deported, mostly to Auschwitz and Sobibor. Only 5,200 survived, less than 25 percent of the Dutch Jewish population before the war.

One town, however, ended the war with more Jews than it had before the Holocaust. According to research by Herman Van Rens, the Jewish population of Limburg was 800 in 1933 but grew to 2,200 by 1945 as a result of an influx of German refugees before the war and Dutch trying to escape the Nazis following the German invasion. In 1942, when Jews began to be rounded up in Limburg, Jews were usually given 24-hour warning, which allowed many to go into hiding. Elsewhere, the Germans would show up unannounced and take Jews away before they knew what was happening. Approximately 10 percent of Jews who hid in Limburg were caught, but a far higher percentage of Jews in Limburg survived the war than anywhere else in the Netherlands.

Because it was such a small town, everyone knew if someone were to betray the Jews, so “it carried different social implications in Amsterdam,” Rens said. Also, unlike other parts of the Netherlands, it was possible to escape to Belgium through limestone caves that led across the border. An estimated 3,000 Jews went through Limburg on their way to Spain and Switzerland.

In April 2005, Holland’s prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende apologized for his country’s collaboration with the Nazis. The Dutch wartime government “worked on the horrible process whereby Jews were stripped of their rights,” Balkenende said before he helped mark the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the Westerbork transit camp.

In May 2020, King Willem-Alexander spoke at the national memorial ceremony for Dutch victims of armed conflicts, acknowledging his great-grandmother Queen Wilhelmina’s indifference to the fate of Dutch Jews during the Holocaust. “Fellow human beings felt abandoned, insufficiently heard, insufficiently supported, even with words,” Willem-Alexander said.

In October 2021, King Willem-Alexander unveiled a memorial in Amsterdam’s historic Jewish Quarter near the concert hall where Jews who were rounded up for deportation by the Nazis honoring the more than 102,000 Jews, Roma, and Sinti who the Nazis murdered. The memorial’s walls are constructed of bricks that form four Hebrew letters spelling lezecher, which translates as “In Memory Of.” Each brick is inscribed with the name, date of birth, and age of the victim’s death.

In January 2025, the names of around 425,000 people suspected of collaborating with the Nazis during the German occupation of the Netherlands was published online. The archive includes the names of some 20,000 Dutch people who enlisted in the German armed forces, and alleged members of the National Socialist Movement (NSB) - the Dutch Nazi party. It does not indicate, however, whether they were found guilty of collaboration or any crime. History professor Hans Renderstold the BBC that only around 15% of cases went to court and around 120,000 people had their cases dismissed.

The Modern Period

In 1946, there were 30,000 Jews in the Netherlands, just 20 percent of the pre-war population; of these, nearly a third were partners in mixed marriages. The population had decreased by several thousand by the mid-1950s due to emigration and a low birth rate. In fact, the emigration from the Netherlands to Palestine and later to Israel surpassed that of any other Western European country. In many ways, the Jews of the Netherlands were better off after the Holocaust than they had ever been. Relations with non-Jews were friendly, and reparation payments made the Jewish community very wealthy. Traditional Jews, however, were few and far between, and organized community membership dropped due to increased assimilation.

A WWII memorial stands in front of the Amsterdam Ashkenazi Synagogue.

To the present day, the number of Jews in Amsterdam has held steady at between 25,000 and 30,000. While the total numbers have remained constant, however, levels of observance have increased. Primarily due to the presence of Chabad, there are currently three Jewish schools in Amsterdam, and the number of Jews affiliated with communities has grown over the years. Kosher food is available in Amsterdam, the Hague, and several other cities with Jewish populations. Nonetheless, most Jews are still unaffiliated.

The Center for Information and Documentation on Israel (CIDI), which has been monitoring anti-Semitism in the Netherlands for three decades, said 2019 had the highest number of anti-Semitic incidents since it began compiling data. The number of incidents increased by 35% over 2018.

In 2005, the Dutch national rail company NS apologized for its role in the deportation of more than 100,000 Jews. In 1999, NS allocated more than $40 million toward compensating an estimated 500 living survivors of the Holocaust as well as the spouses and children of victims.

In 2020, NS said it would pay $5.6 million to Holocaust commemoration institutions, including the Westerbork, Vught, and Amersfoort museums. In a statement, the company said, “NS considers cooperation with these deportations by the occupying forces to be a black page in the history of the company.”

Jewish organizations were dissatisfied, however, and asked the company to reconsider and offer compensation to the families of the estimated 102,000 Jews NS transported to their deaths.

In 2022, the Rights Forum, a pro-Palestinian advocacy group led by former prime minister Dries van Agt, asked Dutch universities to reveal the relations between their staff and Israeli and Jewish organizations. “The clear inference is that some shadowy Zionist/Jewish cabal is operating in the Dutch university system,” said Dutch Chief Rabbi Binyomim Jacobs. “This reeks of anti-Semitism, but it comes as no surprise to me given this group’s reputation.”

“What really concerns me is the number of universities that were so compliant with such a transparently antisemitic request. It reminds us that most mayors cooperated during the occupation to pass on the names of their Jewish citizens to the Germans,” added Jacobs.

Following the outcry, a group of 14 public Dutch universities announced they were suspending their investigations into their ties with Israeli and Jewish entities.

On October 8, 2024, reports of Dutch police officers refusing to secure Jewish community events due to ideological reasons led National Police Commissioner Janny Knol to initiate internal discussions. The issue, first reported by the Dutch-Jewish outlet NIW, included concerns from Michel Thiebaum, chair of a Jewish police officers’ group, about officers citing “moral dilemmas” for avoiding such duties. While Knol stressed the need for officers to protect everyone, no disciplinary measures were taken. The refusal has sparked alarm, especially given the Dutch police’s historic role in the Holocaust, when 75% of Dutch Jews perished. Lawmakers have since questioned Justice Minister David van Weel on ensuring protection for all, as anti-Semitism rises following the October 7 Hamas attack.

On November 11, 2024, Amsterdam police arrested several individuals following violent clashes in which rioters set a tram car ablaze and smashed its windows using fireworks. Footage captured a participant shouting an anti-Semitic slur. A clip showed a Palestinian flag near the site. Police confirmed the empty tram sustained damage and advised the public to avoid the area as riot squads worked to restore order amid heightened tensions.

Two weeks later, the Dutch government announced it would spend almost $5 million to fight anti-Semitism. The strategy is “a combination of repression and prevention,” Prime Minister Dick Schoof said. The government said it would establish an anti-Semitism taskforce, enact tougher laws on “glorifying terrorism,” and investigate violence during protests. A special effort was going to be made to stop anti-Semitic chanting in soccer stadiums.

In February 2025, Amsterdam police were seeking to arrest a 31-year-old man who emailed threats earlier in the month to a Jewish school, vowing to shoot three children as retaliation for events in Gaza, according to Dutch media. The suspect, identified but currently in Turkey, remains at large. The Cheider school, among others, had previously closed in October 2023 over fears of anti-Jewish violence following the Hamas attack in Israel.

Relations with Israel and the Palestinians

The relationship between the Netherlands and Israel has been mostly friendly. The Netherlands voted in favor of partition in the UN and has frequently defended Israel both in the UN and in the European Union. They have provided sporadic military aid to Israel as well.

The PLO and, subsequently, the Palestinian Authority have been granted only limited recognition in the Hague.

On November 25, 2014, Holland’s newly appointed Foreign Minister Bert Koenders expressed his support for negotiations towards a two-state solution and condemned Ireland, Britain, Spain, and Sweden’s unilateral recognition of Palestinian statehood. Koenders stated that this recognition of a Palestinian state by these countries “does not contribute to the priority issue of restarting negotiations” and that the Netherlands would recognize Palestine “at a strategic moment.”

Koenders also referred to the Israeli blockade of Gaza as collective punishment and condemned the West Bank security barrier as a violation of international law. Groups involved in the BDS movement were hoping that Koenders would take a much harsher stance on Israel and were disappointed.

The Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel (CIDI), the main anti-Semitism watchdog organization of the Netherlands, reported in April 2015 that in 2014 the country experienced 171 anti-Semitic incidents, in contrast to 100 incidents in 2013. This reflects a worldwide trend, with anti-Semitic attacks globally increasing in frequency by 40% on average, according to a report released by the Kantor Center for the Study of Contemporary European Jewry at Tel Aviv University. Rabbi Benjamin Jacobs, the leader of the Netherlands Jewish community, recommended solving the problem and combatting anti-Semitism through education.

The Dutch government issued a travel warning for tourists interested in traveling to Israel in June 2015. The language was perceived as anti-Semitic as the government urged Dutch citizens to avoid “Jewish colonists [who] live in illegal West Bank settlements and organize demonstrations” when they travel to Israel. Dutch citizens were warned in this online posting that “the colonists are sometimes violent. At times, these colonists throw stones at Palestinians and international vehicles.” The warning advised Dutch citizens to stay away from Gaza, stating that they may become victims of an Israeli aerial attack or may be caught in the crossfire between radical Islamic groups.

Israeli officials visited the Netherlands in September 2016, and an agreement was reached to work jointly on improving Gaza’s water and energy supplies.

In late 2018, the Dutch Parliament voted to cut 7 percent of Dutch funding to the Palestinian Authority. The amount was based on the estimated amount of the PA budget spent on payments to terrorists in jail and families of “martyrs.”

In Israel’s first defense export contract with the Royal Netherlands Army, Elbit Systems contracted in 2023 to supply an artillery rocket system for $305 million. Later that year, Elbit signed a $55 million contract for a multilayered counter-drone system.

On September 5, 2024, it was reported that the Netherlands Army had purchased over 200 medium-range anti-tank missile launchers from Israel’s Rafael Advanced Defense Systems for up to €250 million ($277 million). The Dutch Army and Marines will adopt Rafael’s Integrated Command Launch Unit, capable of firing Spike LR2 missiles with a 5,000-meter range while remaining compatible with older Spike missiles. In early 2024, the Netherlands suspended F-35 parts exports to Israel due to a court ruling on alleged war crimes in Gaza, a decision the government has since appealed.

In response to the International Criminal Court’s arrest warrants issued on November 21, 2024, against Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and former Defense Minister Yoav Gallant, the Netherlands confirmed it would act upon the warrants. Israeli Foreign Minister Gideon Sa’ar expressed his disappointment over the Netherlands’ stance, leading to the cancellation of a visit to Israel by Dutch Foreign Minister Caspar Veldkamp, which was scheduled for the following Monday

Amsterdam Mayor Femke Halsema prohibited a planned rally against anti-Semitism at Dam Square due to safety concerns, including the crowded conditions on the eve of Sinterklaas. Christians for Israel, the rally’s organizers, criticized the decision, highlighting the city’s allowance of pro-Palestinian protests at the exact location and accusing the government of sidelining the Jewish community. The rally was relocated, with organizers urging attendance to stand in solidarity with Dutch Jews facing a rise in anti-Semitic incidents, such as the recent “pogrom” in Amsterdam. The decision reflects broader tensions over the city’s response to anti-Semitism and public safety.

On November 7, 2024, following a soccer match between Maccabi Tel Aviv and Ajax in Amsterdam, Israeli fans were subjected to violent, seemingly coordinated attacks by pro-Palestinian rioters. Groups of masked assailants, reportedly including local Muslims and Arabs, hunted, harassed, and beat Israelis in various locations across the city, shouting pro-Palestinian slogans. Dutch police struggled to protect the fans, resulting in injuries, arrests, and fears of more violence. Several fans hid in their hotels, while some were attacked en route to the airport.

In response, Israeli officials condemned the violence as anti-Semitic, calling it a “pogrom,” and Dutch Prime Minister Dick Schoof pledged to track down those responsible. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu initially ordered military planes to assist citizens but later canceled the plan after civil aviation options were deemed sufficient. Authorities in Amsterdam increased police patrols and advised Israelis to avoid displaying Jewish symbols in public. Israeli Foreign Minister Gideon Sa’ar and Ambassador to the UN Danny Danon denounced the attacks, comparing them to historical atrocities such as Kristallnacht.

Dutch far-right leader Geert Wilders and U.S. anti-Semitism envoy Deborah Lipstadt also condemned the violence, with Lipstadt likening it to a “classic pogrom” and calling for a thorough investigation into the police response. The incident has intensified concerns over anti-Semitic violence in Europe, with leaders calling for increased protections for Jewish and Israeli citizens.

A Dutch court has convicted four men for their roles in violent attacks against Israeli soccer fans in Amsterdam, bringing the total number of convictions to nine. The convicted men, aged 22 to 32, received prison sentences ranging from one to three months for offenses including inciting violence and making antisemitic remarks. Cenk D., 27, received the heaviest sentence for helping target Maccabi fans and posting Holocaust-related hate speech. The court acknowledged tensions linked to Gaza but ruled that such context did not justify violence against Israeli visitors.

In March 2025, the University of Amsterdam suspended its student exchange program with the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, citing the Israeli institution’s failure to distance itself from alleged human rights violations in Gaza during the Israel-Hamas war. The decision followed an internal review of collaborations with institutions in Israel, China, and Hungary, aiming to prevent partnerships that could contribute to human rights abuses or military misuse of research. The committee criticized Hebrew University for its ties to Israel’s defense industry and army training programs. It also raised concerns about academic freedom, referencing the suspension of an Israeli professor who accused Israel of genocide.

The following month, the Dutch government tightened export controls on all military and dual-use goods bound for Israel, requiring individual permits and checks for compliance with European regulations instead of allowing shipments under general export licenses. This policy shift, outlined in a letter to parliament by Foreign Minister Caspar Veldkamp and Trade Minister Reinette Klever, is attributed to the ongoing conflict in Gaza and broader regional instability. Although no military goods have been exported to Israel under a general permit since the war began on October 7, 2023, exports of low-risk items like network security routers were standard and will now require individual authorization, with an estimated 50 to 100 permits expected.

In July 2025, the Netherlands has banned Israeli ministers Itamar Ben-Gvir and Bezalel Smotrich from entering the country, citing their support for prolonging the Gaza war and promoting the emigration of Palestinians. Dutch Foreign Minister Caspar Veldkamp announced the ban in a letter to parliament, declaring that “the war in Gaza must stop.” The move comes amid mounting domestic and European pressure on Israel to ease humanitarian conditions in Gaza, with the Dutch government also summoning Israel’s ambassador and urging Prime Minister Netanyahu to take immediate action.

The following month, the entrance to the Israeli embassy in The Hague was smashed and defaced with red paint, in what authorities are treating as a deliberate act of vandalism. Israeli Ambassador Modi Ephraim condemned the incident, describing it as an example of the dangerous consequences of growing hatred and incitement. He emphasized the importance of ensuring diplomats can carry out their duties safely and without hindrance.

A violent anti-Semitic attack occurred at a holiday resort in the Netherlands when a group of men of Arab origin assaulted an Israeli family during a paintball game, leaving four injured, two hospitalized. Witnesses described a brutal beating accompanied by shouts of “kill the Jews” and “Palestine,” with threats against the victims’ children. Despite arrests, the attackers were released the same night, deepening the family’s sense of fear and helplessness. Israel condemned the incident, urging Dutch authorities to act decisively. The attack coincided with other anti-Israel incidents in Europe and with Dutch organizers excluding Israeli defense firms from a major arms fair.

In January 2026, it was reported that the Netherlands was set to install Israel’s Trophy active protection system on its Leopard 2 tanks under a deal valued at hundreds of millions of euros, strengthening the defensive capabilities of its armored forces. Trophy uses advanced radar to identify incoming missiles and rockets and, when necessary, deploys interceptors to destroy them before impact. Already operational on U.S. Abrams and German Leopard 2 tanks, the system’s adoption by the Dutch military underscores The Hague’s emphasis on battlefield survivability and interoperability with allied NATO forces.

Amsterdam

Today, the Jewish quarter, which was destroyed during the Nazi occupation, has been largely abandoned; only the “Snoga,” the Sephardi synagogue, remains in use there. Nonetheless, the quarter is still full of monuments and historical sights. The Rembrandthuis (Rembrandt House) is located on Jodenbreestraat and contains a collection of his works. Among the pieces displayed are numerous biblical scenes and portraits of prominent seventeenth-century Jews.

A painting of an Ashkenazi synagogue in Amsterdam.

Not far from the Rembrandthuis are several restored synagogues. A large complex houses the Great Shul (built in 1670), the Obbene Shul (1672), the Dritt Shul (1700), and the Neie Shul (1730); all four were badly damaged during WWII and its aftermath, and have recently been renovated. The shuls reflect the rapid growth of Dutch Ashkenazi Jewry in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries – each synagogue was constructed when the previous one proved too small for the expanding community. The complex also contains a mikveh and houses the Jewish Historical Museum, which has a large collection of memorabilia and ritual objects.

Around the corner, on Plantage Middenlaan, is the Hollandsche Schouwberg. The spot was once the site of Jewish dramatic performances; later, it was the gathering spot for Jews who were rounded up and deported by the Nazis. A Holocaust memorial stands there today.

The Beth Chayim Sephardi cemetery dates back to 1614.

The “Snoga,” the Sephardi synagogue used almost continually since 1672, stands nearby. It is famous for its magnificent interior, sand-covered floors, and library, which contains priceless copies of some of the scholarly works that made Amsterdam famous during the Golden Age. Down the road, on Waterlooplein, is where the previous Sephardi shul stood, where Baruch Spinoza was excommunicated. The house he grew up in is nearby, and today houses a church.

The Anne Frank House, at Prinsengracht 263, is one of the most visited sites in the Netherlands. The small house where the Frank and Van Damm families hid for two years today houses a museum. Much of the house, however, has not been changed from its original state: posters of movie stars still hang on the wall of what was Anne’s bedroom, and the kitchen walls are marked with pencil lines where the family marked their children’s growth spurts.

The government of Amsterdam announced on May 23, 2016, that they would be compensating the city’s Jewish community to the tune of $11 million to make up for taxes imposed on Holocaust survivors returning to the city following World War II. Survivors were forced to pay taxes as well as insurance fees when they returned on homes left vacant after the Nazis forcibly took away the owners. Amsterdam’s government decided to give the money to the Jewish community because finding the individual people or relatives entitled to compensation would be too long and arduous.

The Hague

The seat of the Dutch government is less cosmopolitan than Amsterdam, but it also contains important history. Many Jews lived, and still live, in this city, most notably Baruch Spinoza, during the last years of his life. Several museums are located in the houses he occupied, which the Spinoza Society runs. Additionally, his grave is in the Churchyard of the Nieuwe Kirk (New Church). While his excommunication prevented him from being buried in a Jewish cemetery, a memorial adorned with the Hebrew word “amcha” (“your people”) was placed on the site in 1956 by the Israel Spinoza Society on the 300th anniversary of his excommunication.

Also in The Hague is a Jewish Community center and several synagogues. The most popular attraction in the city is the Madurodam, a miniature city on a 1:25 scale in which cars and buses move, windmills turn, and music and lights go on and off. The Maduro family built the model in memory of George Maduro, a Jewish military hero who died in Dachau.

Middelburg

Middelburg was one of the first cities in the Netherlands where Jews could express their religion freely. The synagogue in Middelburg was founded in 1705 and was the first to be built outside of Amsterdam. During the Holocaust, Middelburg’s small Jewish community of 200 was first transported to Amsterdam in 1942 and, from there, was sent to concentration camps in Eastern Europe. The Germans used the synagogue as a storehouse during the war, and the building was later severely damaged during the liberation of 1944.

Only six of Middelburg’s Jews returned to the city after the war. Without a Jewish community, Middelburg’s synagogue fell into decay, and by 1980, only a few walls remained intact. In 1987, the Stichting Synagogue Middelburg, the Middelburg Synagogue Foundation, was formed to restore the synagogue. The restoration was completed in 1994, and it is now possible to go visit one of the oldest surviving synagogues in the Netherlands between March and November, every Thursday from 10:00 until 4:00.

Middleburg is also home to two Jewish cemeteries, one Ashkenazi and the other Sephardic. The Ashkenazi cemetery dates to 1705 and is still in use today. The Sephardic cemetery was in use between 1655 and 1721 and was recently restored. Rabbi Menasseh Ben Israel’s son Samuel is buried at this cemetery. Ben Israel petitioned Oliver Cromwell in 1655 to allow the re-entrance of Jews to England and is believed to be partially responsible for Cromwell’s decision in favor of their re-admittance. Both of Middelburg’s Jewish cemeteries have been recognized as national monuments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL AND HISTORICAL: Brugmans-Frank; M.H. Gans, Memorboeck (1971); ESN; Graetz, Hist, index; J. Michman (ed.), Dutch Jewish History (1982–), 3 vols. (as of 2006); S. Seeligman, De Emancipatie der Joden in Nederland (1918); S. van Praag, De West-Joden en hun letterkunde (1926); H. Poppers, De Joden in Overijssel (1926); E. Boekman, Demografie van de Joden in Nederland (1936); H.I. Bloom, Economic Activities of the Jews of Amsterdam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1937, repr. 1969); H. Beem, De verdwenen mediene (1950); J. Stengers, Les juifs dans les Pays-Bas au moyen âge (1950); J. Melkman, David Franco Mendes (1951); D. Cohen, Zwervend en dolend (1955); M.E. Bolle, De opheffing van de autonomie der kehilloth (Joodse gemeenten) in Nederland, 1796 (1960); L. Finkelstein (ed.), The Jews, 2 vols. (1960³), index; J. Meijer, Het Jonas Daniël Meijerplein (1961); idem, Erfenis der emancipatie: het Nederlandse Jodendom in de eerste helft van de 19e eeuw (1963); idem, Zij lieten hun sporen achter (1964); I. Lipschits, Honderd jaar het Nieuw Israëlietisch Weekblad, 1865–1965 (1966); C. Reijnders, Van "Joodsche natiën? tot Joodse Nederlanders (1969); Shunami, Bibl, index. HOLOCAUST PERIOD: W. Warmbrunn, The Dutch under German Occupation 1940–1945 (1963); R. Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews (1961), 365–81; J. Presser, Destruction of the Dutch Jews (1969); idem, Ondergang, 2 vols. (1965); A.J. Herzberg, Kroniek der Jodenvervolging (1949–54); De Jong, in: Yad Vashem Studies, 7 (1968), 39–55; P. Mechanicus, In Depot, Dagboek uit Westerbork (1964); H.G. Adler, Theresienstadt (Ger., 1960); E. Kolb, Bergen-Belsen (Ger., 1962). CONTEMPORARY PERIOD: JJSO, 3 (1961), 195–242; 4 (1962), 47–71; H. Boas, ibid., 5 (1963), 55–83; J. Melkman, Geliefde vijand (1964); M. Snijders, Joden van Amsterdam (1958); S. Wijnberg, De Joden in Amsterdam (1967); A. Vedder et al., De Joden in Nederland na de tweede wereldoorlog (1960). ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Studia Rosenthaliana, 1–76 (1967–2005); M.H. Gans, Memorbook (1977); J. Michman (ed.), Dutch Jewish History, vols. 1–3 (1984–93); B. Moore, Victims and Survivors (1997); J. Michman, H. Beem, and D. Michman, Pinkas. Geschiedenis van de joodse gemeenschap in Nederland (1999); Y. Kaplan and C. Brasz, Dutch Jews as Perceived by Themselves and Others (2001); J.Ch Blom, R.G. Fuks-Mansfeld, and I. Schöffer (eds.), The History of the Jews in The Netherlands (2002); J. Michman and B.J. Flam, Encyclopedia of the Righteous Among the Nations: The Netherlands, 2 vols. (2004).

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Photo Credits: Center for Research on Dutch Jewry, at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem.
Ellen Land-Weber, from her book To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue.

The Netherlands (Holland) Virtual Jewish History Tour